List of Indo-European languages
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An Indo-European language is the majority native language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> An Indo-European language is a co-official and majority native language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> An Indo-European language is an official but minority native language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> An Indo-European language is a cultural or secondary language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> An Indo-European language is not widely spoken
Non-Indo-European languages
Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
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Script error: No such module "sidebar". This is a list of languages in the Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.
Numbers of languages and language groups
The Indo-European languages include some 449 (SIL estimate, 2018 edition[1]) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in Europe, and western and southern Asia, belong to the Indo-European language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers. Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch. The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the SIL estimate, 2018 edition,[1] are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.
Definition of language
The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect. Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.
Summary of historical development
The ancestral population and language, Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through migration and cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, acculturation and language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern Eurasia.[2] This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family. By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern Eurasia (including western Central Asia). In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further. Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement. However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to North Asia (Siberia), through Russian expansion, and North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand as the result of the age of European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.) The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of European colonization, also gave origin to the many pidgins, creoles and mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).
Proto-Indo-European
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- Proto-Indo-European (extinct) (see also Proto-Indo-European homeland)
- Early Proto-Indo-European (First version of Indo-European)
- Middle Proto-Indo-European ("Classical" Indo-European)
- Late Proto-Indo-European (Last version of indo-European as a spoken language before splitting into several languages that originated in the regional dialects that diverged in time, and in space, with Indo-European migrations; these languages were the direct ancestors of today's subfamilies or "branches" of descendant languages) (larger clades of Indo-European than the individual subfamilies or the way individual subfamilies are related to each other are both as-of-yet unresolved issues)
- Middle Proto-Indo-European ("Classical" Indo-European)
- Early Proto-Indo-European (First version of Indo-European)
Dating the split-offs of the main branches
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Although all Indo-European languages descend from a common ancestor called Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated. However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened.[3] Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:[4]
- Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
- Pre-Anatolian (before 3500 BC)
- Pre-Tocharian
- Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (before 2500 BC)
- Pre-Armenian and Pre-Greek (after 2500 BC)
- Proto-Indo-Iranian (2000 BC)
- Pre-Germanic and Pre-Balto-Slavic; proto-Germanic (500 BC)
David W. Anthony, following the methodology of Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow, proposes the following sequence:[4]
- Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
- Pre-Anatolian (4200 BC)
- Pre-Tocharian (3700 BC)
- Pre-Germanic (3300 BC)
- Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (3000 BC)
- Pre-Armenian (2800 BC)
- Pre-Balto-Slavic (2800 BC)
- Pre-Greek (2500 BC)
- Proto-Indo-Iranian (2200 BC); split between Old Iranian and Old Indic 1800 BC
The list below follows Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.[5] quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press. The Indo-European phylogenetic tree of subfamilies or branches is also based in Chang, Chundra & Hall 2015, pp. 199–200 and Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241.
Anatolian languages (all extinct)
- Proto-Anatolian[6]
Unclassified (within Anatolian)
Possibly Anatolian
- Hitite or Luwian
- Luwic-Palaic
Tocharian languages (Agnean-Kuchean) (all extinct)
- Proto-Agnean-Kuchean ("Proto-Tocharian")
- North-Tocharian[12][13][14]
- Tocharian A (Agnean) (Turfanian / East Tocharian) (Agni / Ārśi)
- Tocharian B (Kuchean) (West Tocharian) (Kuśiññe / Kučiññe)
- South Tocharian
- Tocharian C (Kroränian) (possible)[15] (Krorainic / Lolanisch / South Tocharian)Template:Tree list/end
- North-Tocharian[12][13][14]
Armenian language
- Proto-Armenian (extinct)
- Classical Armenian (գրաբար - grabar) (Old Armenian)
- Liturgical Armenian
- Middle Armenian (Միջին հայերէն - Miǰin Hayerēn) / Cilician Armenian (կիլիկեան հայերէն - Kilikyan Hayerēn)
- Modern Armenian (աշխարհաբար - Ashkharhabar)
- Armenian (հայերեն - Hayerēn) (Broad Armenian) (dialect continuum)
- Armenian Standards
- Eastern Armenian (Արեւելահայերեն - Arevelahayerēn)
- Western Armenian (Արեւմտահայերէն - Arevmdahayerēn)
- Armenian dialects[16]
- Eastern Armenian (dialect continuum)
- -owm dialects
- Araratian
- Yerevan
- Modern Eastern Armenian Standard
- Yerevan
- Jugha / Julfa
- Zok[17][18] (could be a distinct armenian language)
- Agulis
- Meghri
- Artsakh / Karabagh Armenian
- Eastern Armenian dialects in the diaspora
- Tiflis / Tbilisi Armenian
- Shamakha (nearly extinct)
- Astrakhan Armenian (extinct)
- Iranian Armenian dialect (Persian Armenian - պարսկահայերէն - Parskahayerēn)
- Northwest Iran Armenian
- Tabriz Armenian (Tavrezh)
- North Iran Armenian
- Tehran Armenian
- Central Iran Armenian
- New Jugha / New Julfa / Isfahan Armenian
- Northwest Iran Armenian
- Araratian
- -el dialects
- Ardvin / Tayk
- Nor Shirakan
- Khoy
- Maragha
- -owm dialects
- Western Armenian (dialect continuum)
- -gë dialects
- Karin (Erzurum Armenian) / Upper Armenia (Bardzr Hayk')
- Turuberan
- Mush / Taron
- Gavar
- Mush / Taron
- Van / Vaspurakan
- Torfavan
- Tigranakert / Aghdznik (Arzanene) (nearly extinct)
- Kharpert-Yerznka / (Tsopk') (nearly extinct)
- Shabin–Karahisar
- Trapizon / Trabzon Armenian (nearly extinct)
- Malatia (extinct)
- Adiyaman
- Cilician Armenian (nearly extinct)
- Sueidia / Syrian Armenian
- Vakıflı
- Kessab
- Latakia
- Jisr al-Shughur
- Anjar
- Arabkir (almost extinct)
- Akn (almost extinct)
- Sebastia / Sivas Armenian (nearly extinct)
- Tokat (almost extinct)
- Western Armenian dialects in the diaspora
- West Anatolia diaspora
- Nicomedia / Izmit Armenian
- Constantinople / Istanbul Armenian (nearly extinct)
- Rodosto / Tekirdağ Armenian (extinct)
- Smyrna / Izmir Armenian
- Black Sea diaspora
- Crimean Armenian
- Nakhichevan-on-Don / Nor Nakhichevan - New Nakhichevan / Don Armenian
- Crimean Armenian
- Levant diaspora
- Kaghakatsi / Jerusalem Armenian (Armenian Quarter)
- European diaspora
- Austria-Hungary (extinct)
- North American diaspora
- South American diaspora
- Australian diaspora
- West Anatolia diaspora
- Homshetsi[19] (could be a distinct archaic armenian language)
- -gë dialects
- Eastern Armenian (dialect continuum)
- Armenian Standards
- Armenian (հայերեն - Hayerēn) (Broad Armenian) (dialect continuum)
- Modern Armenian (աշխարհաբար - Ashkharhabar)
- Classical Armenian (գրաբար - grabar) (Old Armenian)
Hellenic languages
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- Proto-Greek[22] (extinct)
- Mycenaean Greek (extinct)
- Ancient Greek (Classical Greek) (Ἑλληνική – Hellēnikḗ / Ἑλληνική γλῶσσα – Hellēnikḗ glōssa) (extinct) (Dialect continuum)
- Ancient Greek dialects[23][24]
- East Greek
- Central Group (extinct)
- Aeolic Greek (extinct)
- Thessalian
- Boeotian
- Lesbian / Lesbos Island
- Asia Minor Aeolian
- Arcadocypriot (extinct)
- Arcadian
- Cypriot
- Pamphylian Greek (extinct)
- Aeolic Greek (extinct)
- Eastern Group
- Ionic (extinct)
- Ionic Literary Dialect
- Homeric Greek / Epic Greek
- Attic (extinct)
- Koine Greek (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος – hē koinḕ diálektos / Kοινὴ – Koinḕ)
- Biblical Greek
- Medieval Greek / Byzantine Greek) (Ῥωμαϊκή - Rōmaïkē, Romaic - Eastern Roman Empire Greek) (Dialect continuum)
- Modern Greek
- Greek (ελληνικά – Elliniká) (Broad Greek) (Dialect continuum)
- Greek Standards
- Katharevousa (Καθαρεύουσα – Katharevousa) / Old Standard Greek
- Demotic (Δημοτική γλώσσα – Dimotikí glṓssa) / Modern Standard Greek
- Modern Greek dialects[25][26]
- Southern dialects
- Archaic dialects
- Old Athenian
- Aeginian
- Kymian
- Megaran
- Maniot
- Paomia-Cargèse Greek (Corsican Greek) (extinct)
- Ionian-Peloponnesian
- Peloponnesian
- Ionian Islands
- South Euboean
- Cretan-Cycladian
- Cretan
- Cycladian
- Southeastern
- Chiote-Ikarian
- Dodecanesian
- Lycian Greek
- Cypriot
- North Epirote
- Archaic dialects
- Northern dialects
- Central dialects ("Semi-Northern")
- North Euboean-Sporadic
- Skyriot
- Mykonian
- Desfinan
- Lefkadan
- Northern Proper
- Thessalian
- South Epirote
- Vourbianian
- Kastorian
- Naousan
- Macedonian Greek
- Sarakatsanian (Sarakatsanika)
- Thracian Greek
- Rumelian Greek
- Constantinopolitan Greek
- Bithynian Greek
- Artakian
- Western Anatolian
- North Aegean
- Lesbic (Lesbos Island Greek)
- Lemnic (Lemnos Island Greek)
- Smyrniote (Smyrna Greek)
- Samian (Samos Island Greek)
- North Aegean
- Central dialects ("Semi-Northern")
- Greco-Australian
- Southern dialects
- Greek Standards
- Greek (ελληνικά – Elliniká) (Broad Greek) (Dialect continuum)
- Asia Minor Greek / Anatolian Greek[27]
- Silliot
- Proto-Cappadocian
- Pharasiot
- Pontic-Cappadocian
- Pontic Greek (ποντιακά – Pontiaká)
- Western Pontic
- Trepezuntine
- Chaldiot
- Mariupolitan Greek (Rumeíka)
- Cappadocian Greek (Καππαδοκικά - Kappadokiká)
- Pontic Greek (ποντιακά – Pontiaká)
- Italiot Greek[28]
- Salentinian Greek / Griko (Γκρίκο – Gríko)
- Calabrian Greek / Grecanico (Γκραίκο – Graíko)
- Yevanic (Judæo-Greek / Romaniote) (probably extinct)
- Modern Greek
- Koine Greek (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος – hē koinḕ diálektos / Kοινὴ – Koinḕ)
- West Ionic / Euboean
- Chalcidician
- Central Ionic / Cycladian Ionic / Northern Cycladian
- East Ionic / Asia Minor Ionic
- Ionic Literary Dialect
- Ionic (extinct)
- Central Group (extinct)
- West Greek / Doric / Dorian (extinct)
- Northwest Greek / Northwest Doric (extinct)
- Locrian Greek (extinct)
- Phocian-Delphian
- Elean
- Northwest Greek koine
- Achaean Doric (extinct)
- Achaean Doric
- Achaean Doric Koine
- Doric proper
- Northwest Greek / Northwest Doric (extinct)
- East Greek
- Ancient Greek dialects[23][24]
- Ancient Greek (Classical Greek) (Ἑλληνική – Hellēnikḗ / Ἑλληνική γλῶσσα – Hellēnikḗ glōssa) (extinct) (Dialect continuum)
- Ancient Macedonian[30] (extinct)
- Mycenaean Greek (extinct)
Albanian language
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- Proto-Albanian (extinct)
- Albanian (Modern Albanian) (shqip / gjuha shqipe) (dialect continuum)
- Albanian dialects[31][32]
- Gheg Albanian (gegnisht) (Northern Albanian dialect)
- Northern Gheg
- Northwestern Gheg
- Malësia
- Kraja
- Shkodër and Lezhë
- Northeastern Gheg
- East Drin basin
- Nikaj and Mertur
- Tropoja
- Kosovë and Metohi / Kosovo Albanian
- Northwestern Gheg
- Central / Middle Gheg
- Mati
- Upper Reka
- Southern Gheg
- Elbasan Gheg
- Old Tirana
- Peqin Province
- Southern Gheg diaspora
- Arbanasi
- Istrian Albanian (extinct)
- Northern Gheg
- Tosk Albanian (toskërisht) (Southern Albanian dialect) (basis of Standard Albanian)
- Northern Tosk
- Northwest Tosk
- Berat
- Skrapar
- Vlora
- Northeast Tosk
- Opar
- Devoll
- Korçë
- Southeast
- Middle Vjosa
- Northern Tosk diaspora
- Western Thracian Tosk (Western Thrace Albanians dialect)
- Northwest Tosk
- Southern Tosk
- Transitional Northern-Southern Tosk / Tosk diaspora
- Mandritsa (Mandricë) Albanian / Bulgarian Albanian
- Ukraine Albanian (Albanians in Ukraine dialect)
- Arbërishte (Southern Italy Tosk Albanian)
- Apulia Arbërishte
- Molise Arbërishte / Campo Marino Albanian
- Campania Arbërishte
- Basilicata Arbërishte
- Calabria Arbërishte / Calabro-Arbërishte
- Sicilia Arbërishte
- Arvanitika (Greece Tosk Albanian)
- Viotia Arvanitika / Boeotia Arvanitika
- Evia Arvanitika / Euboea Arvanitika
- Attiki Arvanitika / Attica Arvanitika
- Salamina Arvanitika
- Peloponnese Arvanitika
- Northern Tosk
- Gheg Albanian (gegnisht) (Northern Albanian dialect)
- Albanian dialects[31][32]
- Albanian (Modern Albanian) (shqip / gjuha shqipe) (dialect continuum)
Italic languages
- Proto-Italic (extinct)
- Osco-Umbrian (Sabellic) (all extinct)
- Umbrian
- Oscan
- Unclassified (within Italic) (extinct)
- Latino-Faliscan languages
- Faliscan (extinct)
- Lanuvian (extinct)
- Praenestinian (extinct)
- Latin (Script error: No such module "Lang".)
- Old Latin (Early Latin / Archaic Latin) (Prisca Latina / Prisca Latinitas) (extinct)
- Classical Latin (LINGVA LATINA – Lingua Latina) (extinct)
- Standard Latin (extinct)
- Vulgar Latin / Colloquial Latin (sermō vulgāris) (extinct)
- Pannonian Latin (extinct)
- British Latin / Britannic Latin (extinct)
- Judeo-Latin (Judæo-Latin) (extinct)
- Late Latin (extinct)
- Ecclesiastical Latin (Church Latin, Liturgical Latin) (Lingua Latina Ecclesiastica)
- Medieval Latin (extinct)
- Hiberno-Latin / Hisperic Latin (extinct)
- Renaissance Latin
- Neo-Latin or New Latin; (Neolatina or Lingua Latina Nova)
- Contemporary Latin (Latinitas viva)
- Neo-Latin or New Latin; (Neolatina or Lingua Latina Nova)
- Late Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris) (Proto-Romance) (extinct)
- Romance (dialect continuum)
- Continental Romance
- Italo-Western languages (dialect continuum)
- Disputed Italo-Western
- Franco-Italian (extinct)
- Italo-Dalmatian languages (dialect continuum)
- Central Italian (Italiano Mediano)
- Latian (Laziale)
- Romanesco (Romanesco / Romano)
- Central-Southern
- Central-Northern Latian / Ciociaro[34]
- Judeo-Roman dialect (Giudeo-Romanesco)
- Sabino
- Carseolano / Sublacense
- Tagliacozzano
- Aquilano
- Umbrian (Umbro)
- Southeastern
- Northern
- Northwestern and Viterbese
- Central Marchigiano (Marchigiano Proper)
- Maceratese
- Anconitan
- Latian (Laziale)
- Southern Italian
- Neapolitan (Napulitano – O Nnapulitano)
- Campanian (Campano)
- Naples Neapolitan (Napoletano) (Naples city dialect)
- Beneventano
- Southern Latian
- Irpino
- Cilentano (Cilentan / Northern Cilentan)
- Molisan[35]
- Marchigiano Meridionale - Abruzzese
- Abruzzese
- Vastese (Lu Uâʃtaréule)
- Teramano
- Marchigiano Meridionale
- Abruzzese
- Apulian (Pugliese)
- Lucanian
- Castelmezzano (part of Lausberg area)
- Northern Calabrian
- Campanian (Campano)
- Extreme Southern Italian / Far Southern Italian (Siculo-Calabrian)
- Southern Calabrian
- Sicilian / Sicilian Proper (Sicilianu / Lu Sicilianu)
- Cilentano Meridionale (Far Southern Cilentan)
- Salentino (Salentinu)
- Neapolitan (Napulitano – O Nnapulitano)
- Old Tuscan
- Tuscan (Toscano)
- Eastern
- Florentine (Fiorentino)
- Italian (Italiano / Lingua Italiana) / Standard Italian
- Regional Italian
- Tuscany Regional Italian
- Central Italy, Southern Italy and Sicily Regional Italian
- Northern Italy Regional Italian
- Sardinia Regional Italian
- Maltese Italian
- Swiss Italian
- Italo-Australian
- Regional Italian
- Judeo-Florentine
- Italian (Italiano / Lingua Italiana) / Standard Italian
- Pratese
- Pistoiese
- Senese
- Aretino
- Casentino
- Chianino
- Florentine (Fiorentino)
- Western
- Lucchese
- Pisano
- Livornese
- Judeo-Livornese (Bagitto) (extinct)
- Grossetano
- Elbano (Elba Island)
- Eastern
- Corsican (Corsu / Lingua Corsa)
- Tuscan (Toscano)
- Venetian (Romance Venetian) (Vèneto / Łéngoa Vèneta)
- Lagoon Venetian
- Central Venetian
- Paduan (extinct)
- Western Venetian
- Trentine Venetian
- Alpine Venetian
- Eastern Venetian
- Venetian diaspora
- Pontine Marshes Venetian (in Southeastern Lazio)
- Talian (Brazilian Venetian)
- Chipilo Venetian (Cipilegno) (Puebla Venetian)
- Judeo-Venetian Italkian (Giudeo-Veneziano) (extinct)
- Judeo-Italian / Italkian (ג'יודו-איטאליאנו – Giudeo-Italiano / איטלקית – Italqit) (La'az - לעז)
- Illyro-Roman / Dalmatian (Transitional Western-Eastern Romance)
- Central Italian (Italiano Mediano)
- Western Romance languages (dialect continuum)
- Gallo-Romance languages (dialect continuum)
- Gallo-Italic (Cisalpine Romance)
- Emilian-Romagnol (Emiliân-Rumagnôl) (dialect continuum)
- Gallo-Picene (disputed) (third component of Emilian–Romagnol continuum ?)
- Urbinate
- Pesarese
- Senigallia
- Romagnol (Rumagnôl)[35]
- Ravennate
- Forlivese
- Faentino
- Cesenate
- Riminese
- Sammarinese (San Marino Romagnol)
- Emilian (Emigliân)
- Bolognese (Bulgnaix)
- Modenese (Mudnaix)
- Ferrarese (Fraraix)
- Reggiano (Arzan)
- Mantuan (Mantvan)
- Judeo-Mantuan (extinct)
- Parmesan (Parmigiano) (Pramzan)
- Piacentino (Piaxintein)
- Vogherese (Vugaraix)
- Lunigiana Emilian (Lunizan)
- Carrara Emilian (Cararein)
- Massa Emilian (Masaix)
- Garfagnana Emilian (Garfagnein)
- Gallo-Picene (disputed) (third component of Emilian–Romagnol continuum ?)
- Lombard (Romance Lombard) (Lombard / Lumbaart)
- Eastern Lombard (Lombard)
- Bressano / Bresciano
- Bergamasco (Bergamàsch)
- Cremish (Cremàsch)
- Western Lombard (Lombard / Lumbaart)
- Milanese (Milanés) / Meneghin (Macromilanese)
- Pre-Alpine Western Lombard (Lombardo-Prealpino Occidentale)
- Alpine Western Lombard (Lombardo Alpino)
- Southwestern Lombard (Basso-Lombardo Occidentale)
- Spasell (extinct)
- Eastern Lombard (Lombard)
- Piedmontese (Piemontèis)
- Eastern Piemontese
- South-Eastern
- North-Eastern
- Western Piemontese
- Canavese
- Judaeo-Piedmontese (Giudeo-Piemontese) (extinct)
- Eastern Piemontese
- Ligurian / Genoese (Romance Ligurian) (Ligure / Lengua Ligure / Zenéize)
- Genoese Ligurian (Central Ligurian) (Zenéize)
- Eastern Ligurian / Spezzino (Lìgure do levànte)
- Central-Western Ligurian (Lìgure centro-òcidentâle e òcidentâle / Lìgure de çéntro-ponénte)
- Western Ligurian / Intemelio
- Monégasque (Munegascu)
- Western Ligurian / Intemelio
- Alpine Ligurian (Lìgure alpìn)
- Oltregiogo Ligurian (Lìgure de l'Oltrezôvo) / Northern Ligurian
- Colonial Ligurian (Lìgure coloniâle)
- Provence Ligurian / Figoun / Figon (extinct)
- Capraia Ligurian (Cravaiéize) (extinct)
- Corsican Ligurian
- Calvesino (Calvéize)
- Ajaccino (Ajasìn)
- Bonifacino (Bonifassin)
- Sardinian Ligurian
- Tabarchino (Tabarchin)
- New Tabarchino (Lìgure de Nêuva Tabàrca) (extinct)
- Gibraltar Ligurian (Lìgure de Gibiltæra) (extinct)
- Chios Ligurian (Chiòtico) (extinct)
- Gallo-Italic of Basilicata
- Gallo-Italic of Sicily
- Emilian-Romagnol (Emiliân-Rumagnôl) (dialect continuum)
- Gallo-Rhaetian
- Rhaeto-Romance
- Friulian / Friulan (Furlan / Lenghe Furlane / Marilenghe)
- Standard Friulan (Furlan normalizât)
- Northern Friulan
- Central Friulan
- Southeastern Friulan
- Western Friulan
- Ladin (Ladin / Lingaz Ladin)
- Ladin Dolomitan (Standard Ladin)
- Fornes (?)
- Sella
- Athesian
- Trentinian
- Agordino
- Ampezzan
- Cadorino
- Nones
- Romansh (Rumantsch / Rumàntsch / Romauntsch / Romontsch)
- Friulian / Friulan (Furlan / Lenghe Furlane / Marilenghe)
- Oïl (Northern Gallo-Romance) (Langues d'Oïl) (dialect continuum)
- Southeastern Oïl
- Arpitan (Arpetan / Francoprovençâl / Patouès)
- Valsoanin
- Valdôtain
- Savoyard
- Genevois
- Vaudois
- Fribourgeois
- Neuchâtelois
- Valaisan
- Dauphinois
- Lyonnais
- Bressan
- Forézien
- Jurassien
- Burgondan
- Charolais
- Mâconnais
- Diaspora Arpitan
- Faetar-Cellese (Apulia Arpitan) (Faetar-Cigliàje)
- Arpitan (Arpetan / Francoprovençâl / Patouès)
- Old French (Franceis / François / Romanz) (extinct)
- Central Oïl
- Middle French (François/Franceis)
- Francien / Francian
- Francilien (Île de France Langue d'Oïl)
- French (Français / Langue Française)
- European French
- French of France / France French
- Parisian
- Northern French
- Meridional French / Francitan
- Belgian French
- Swiss French
- Aostan French
- Jersey Legal French
- French of France / France French
- American French
- Canadian French
- Acadian French (Français Acadien)
- Chiac
- Louisiana French (Cajun French) (Français Louisianais)
- Brayon French
- Québec French (Français Québécois)
- Joual
- Ontario French
- New England French (Français de Nouvelle-Angleterre)
- Missouri French / Illinois Country French ("Paw-Paw French")
- Acadian French (Français Acadien)
- Newfoundland French (Français Terre-Neuvien)
- Frenchville French (Français de Frenchville)
- Canadian French
- Caribbean French
- Saint-Barthélemy French (Patois Saint-Barth)
- Haitian French (Français Haïtien)
- Guianese French
- New Caledonian French (Caldoche)
- African French / Sub-Saharan African French (Français Africain)
- Maghreb French / North African French
- Indian French (Français Indien)
- South East Asian French
- European French
- French (Français / Langue Française)
- Orleanais
- Blésois
- Tourangeau
- Percheron
- Berrichon (Berrichonne)
- Oïl Bourbonnais (Bourbonnais d'Oïl)
- Francilien (Île de France Langue d'Oïl)
- Francien / Francian
- Middle French (François/Franceis)
- Eastern Oïl
- Burgundian-Morvandeau (Bregognon)
- Burgundian proper
- Morvandiau
- Frainc-Comtois / Jurassian (Frainc-Comtou/Jurassien)
- Saône
- Doubs-Ognon
- Lomont-Doubs
- Ajoulot
- Vâdais
- Taignon
- Champenois (Champaignat)
- Langrois
- Sennonais
- Troyen
- Briard
- Rémois
- Ardennais
- Lorrain (Lorrain)
- Nancéien
- Messin
- Spinalian
- Deodatian
- Longovician
- Argonnais
- Gaumais
- Welche
- Burgundian-Morvandeau (Bregognon)
- Western Oïl
- Northern Oïl
- Old Norman (Old Romance Norman)
- Norman (Romance Norman) (Normaund)
- Northern Norman
- High Norman
- Cauchois (spoken in the Pays de Caux)
- Low Norman
- Augeron (spoken in the Pays d'Auge)
- Cotentinais (spoken in Cotentin)
- Channel Islands Norman
- Auregnais / Aoeur'gnaeux (extinct)
- Guernésiais / Dgèrnésiais
- Jèrriais
- Sercquiais
- High Norman
- South Norman
- High Norman
- Évreux
- Low Norman
- Argentanois
- Alençonnois
- Avranchinois
- High Norman
- Northern Norman
- Anglo-Norman / Anglo-Norman French (Norman) (extinct)
- Norman (Romance Norman) (Normaund)
- Picard (Picard)
- Amiénois
- Beauvaisin
- Vimeu
- Ponthieu
- Vermandois
- Thiéranchien
- Artésien Rural
- Cambrésien
- Douaisien
- Chti / Chtimi
- Audomarois
- Circum-Lilloises
- Boulonnais
- Calaisien
- Dunkerquois
- "Rouchi" – Tournaisin / Tournaisien (Valenciennois)
- Borain / Hainaut Picard
- Walloon (Walon)
- Western (Walon do Coûtchant / Walon Coûtchantrece) (Walo-Picård)
- Central (Walon do Mitan)
- Eastern (Walon do Levant)
- Southern (Walon Nonnrece / Walon do Midi u Nonne)
- Diaspora Wallon
- Old Norman (Old Romance Norman)
- Southwestern Oïl
- Poitevin-Saintongeais (Poetevin-Séntunjhaes)
- Poitevin (Poetevin)
- Saintongeais (Saintonjhais)
- Poitevin-Saintongeais (Poetevin-Séntunjhaes)
- Judaeo-French (Zarphatic) (צרפתית – Tzarfatit) (extinct)
- Central Oïl
- Southeastern Oïl
- Moselle Romance (extinct)
- Rhaeto-Romance
- Gallo-Italic (Cisalpine Romance)
- Southern Gallo-Romance (Occitano-Romance)
- Old Occitan / Old Provençal (Proensals / Proençal / Romans / Lenga d'Òc / Lemosin) (extinct)
- Occitan (Occitan / Lenga d'Òc / Lemosin / Provençal)
- Arverno-Mediterranean
- Provençal (Provençau (classical norm) / Prouvençau (mistralian norm))
- Niçard / Nissart
- Mentonasc
- Judaeo-Provençal (Shuadit / Chouadit) (שואדית – Shuadit) (extinct)
- Vivaro-Alpine (Alpine Provençal, Gavòt) (Vivaroalpenc / Vivaroaupenc)
- Gardiol (Calabria Provençal)
- Auvergnat (Auvernhat)
- Limousin (Lemosin)
- Provençal (Provençau (classical norm) / Prouvençau (mistralian norm))
- Croissant (linguistic)
- South Bourbonnais
- Marchois
- Central Occitan
- Lengadocian (Northern Lengadocian) / Lenga d' Oc)
- Arverno-Mediterranean
- Aquitanian-Pyrenean
- Southern Lengadocian
- Gascon (Romance Gascon) (Gasco)
- East Gascon
- West Gascon
- Pyrenean Gascon
- Aranese (Aranés)
- Béarnese
- Whistled language of Aas (Béarnese dialect-based whistled language)
- Judeo-Gascon
- Old Catalan (Catalanesch) (extinct)
- Catalan (Modern Catalan) (Catalan–Valencian–Balearic) (Català / Llengua Catalana)
- Eastern Catalan
- Northern Catalan / Rossellonese
- Central Catalan
- Balearic
- Algherese Catalan (Alguerés)
- Western Catalan
- Eastern Catalan
- Judaeo-Catalan (Catalanic) (קטלאנית יהודית – Judeocatalà / קאטאלנית – Catalànic) (extinct)
- Catalan (Modern Catalan) (Catalan–Valencian–Balearic) (Català / Llengua Catalana)
- Occitan (Occitan / Lenga d'Òc / Lemosin / Provençal)
- Old Occitan / Old Provençal (Proensals / Proençal / Romans / Lenga d'Òc / Lemosin) (extinct)
- Iberian Romance languages / Hispano-Romance (dialect continuum)[36]
- Andalusi Romance (extinct) (dialect continuum)[37]
- Navarro-Aragonese / Old Aragonese (extinct)
- Old Riojan (extinct)
- Navarrese Romance (extinct)
- East Old Aragonese
- Ebro Valley Aragonese (extinct)
- Community of Villages Aragonese (extinct)
- Valencian Aragonese (extinct)
- Medieval High Aragonese / Pyrenean Aragonese
- Aragonese (Aragonés / Luenga Aragonesa / Fabla Aragonesa)
- Judaeo-Aragonese (Chodigo-Aragonés) (Aragonit Yehudit / אראגונית יהודית) (extinct)
- Navarro-Aragonese / Old Aragonese (extinct)
- Western Iberian Romance / Western Hispano-Romance (dialect continuum)
- Castilian languages (dialect continuum)
- Old Castilian / Old Spanish / Medieval Spanish (Romance Castellano) (extinct)
- Early Modern Spanish / Middle Spanish / Classical Spanish (Golden Age Spanish)
- Spanish / Castilian (Español / Castellano / Lengua Española / Lengua Castellana)
- Standard Spanish
- Peninsular Spanish / Spanish of Spain (European Spanish, Spanish of Europe)
- Northern Spanish
- Castilian proper
- Old Castille Castilian
- Burgalese Castilian / Burgos Castilian
- Vallisoletano / Valladolid Castilian
- Northeastern New Castille Castilian
- Old Castille Castilian
- Cantabrian Castilian / La Montaña Castilian
- Leonese Spanish
- Asturian Spanish
- Galician Spanish (Castrapo)
- Riojan Spanish
- Navarrese Spanish
- Aragonese Spanish
- Churro Spanish
- Basque Spanish
- Catalan Spanish
- Catalan Spanish Proper
- Balearic Spanish
- Valencian Spanish
- Castilian proper
- Southern Spanish
- Southern New Castille Castilian
- Madridian (Madrileño)
- Manchego
- Toledan (Toledano)
- Murcian Spanish
- Central Murcian (Panocho)
- Andalusian Spanish (Eastern)
- Andalusian Spanish (Western)
- Insular
- Canarian Spanish
- Lanzarotan (Lanzaroteño / Conejero)
- Fuerteventuran (Fuerteventureño / Majorero)
- Gran Canarian (Grancanario)
- Tenerifan (Tinerfeño)
- Gomeran (Gomero)
- Palmeran (Palmero)
- Hierran (Herreño)
- Canarian Diaspora
- Isleño Spanish (North American Canarian Spanish)
- Canarian Spanish
- Southern New Castille Castilian
- Northern Spanish
- Hispanic American Spanish / American Spanish (Spanish of the Americas)
- Caribbean Spanish
- Cuban Spanish
- Dominican Spanish
- Puerto Rican Spanish
- Panamanian Spanish
- Caribbean Coastal Colombian Spanish
- Coastal Venezuelan Spanish
- Maracucho Spanish / Zulian Venezuelan Spanish/ Marabino Spanish/ Maracaibero
- Mexican Spanish
- Coastal (Costeño)
- Central
- Northern (Norteño)
- Yucatan Spanish (Yucateco / Peninsular Oriental)
- Sabine River Spanish
- New Mexican Spanish
- Central American Spanish
- Chiapas Spanish (Chiapaneco)
- Guatemalan Spanish
- Belizean Spanish
- Salvadoran Spanish
- Honduran Spanish
- Nicaraguan Spanish
- Costa Rican Spanish
- Andean Spanish / Highland Spanish (Español Andino / Español de las Tierras Altas)
- Colombian Spanish
- Ecuadorian Spanish
- Peruvian Spanish
- Bolivian Spanish
- Andean Bolivian
- Lower Mountain Range Bolivian (Boliviano de la Sierra)
- Valluno
- Vallegrandino
- Bolivian Lowlands (Camba)
- Bolivian Gran Chaco (Chapaco)
- Andean Argentinian Spanish / Northwestern Argentinian Spanish
- Amazonic Spanish (Charapa Spanish / Loreto-Ucayali Spanish / Jungle Spanish)
- Southern Cone Spanish
- Chilean Spanish
- Northern
- Southern
- Chilote Spanish (Chiloé Archipelago Spanish)
- Chilean Patagonian
- Argentinian Spanish-Uruguayan Spanish
- Central Argentinian Spanish
- Cordobés Spanish
- Puntano
- Western Argentinian Spanish
- River Plate Spanish (Español Rioplatense)
- River Plate proper
- Litoraleño (Fluvial) / River Banks (Entre Ríos + Santa Fe Provinces)
- Bonaerense / Porteño (Buenos Aires City and Province + La Pampa Province)
- Uruguayan Spanish
- Argentinian Patagonian
- River Plate proper
- Central Argentinian Spanish
- Paraguayan Spanish / Guaranitic Spanish (Español Guaranítico)
- Chilean Spanish
- Caribbean Spanish
- Philippine Spanish
- Saharan Spanish
- Equatoguinean Spanish / Equatorial Guinea Spanish
- Spanish Extremaduran (Southern-Central Extremaduran / Low Extremaduran) / Castúo
- Judaeo-Spanish / Ladino (לאדינו – Ladino / גﬞודﬞיאו־איספאנייול – Djudeo-Espanyol / Judeoespañol)
- Spanish / Castilian (Español / Castellano / Lengua Española / Lengua Castellana)
- Early Modern Spanish / Middle Spanish / Classical Spanish (Golden Age Spanish)
- Old Castilian / Old Spanish / Medieval Spanish (Romance Castellano) (extinct)
- Old Leonese (extinct)
- Astur-Leonese (Asturllionés / Astur-Llionés / Llengua Astur-Llionesa)
- Eastern Astur-Leonese (Cantabrian-Extremaduran)
- Cantabrian (Romance Cantabrian) (Cántabru / Montañés)
- Western Cantabrian
- Central Cantabrian
- Pasiego (Pasiegu)
- Montañés
- Eastern Cantabrian
- Old Extremaduran / Old Extremaduran Leonese (extinct)
- High Old Extremaduran (extinct)
- Extremaduran (Northern Extremaduran) (Estremeñu / Artu Estremeñu)
- Serrano / Habla de la Sierra de Francia
- Bejarano (Béjar dialect)
- Palra d'El Rebollal
- Extremaduran (Northern Extremaduran) (Estremeñu / Artu Estremeñu)
- Low Old Extremaduran (Bahu Estremeñu) (extinct)
- Central Old Extremaduran (extinct)
- Southern Old Extremaduran (extinct)
- High Old Extremaduran (extinct)
- Cantabrian (Romance Cantabrian) (Cántabru / Montañés)
- Western Astur-Leonese (Astur-Leonese Proper)
- Asturian (Asturianu) and Leonese (Llionés) / Asturleonese (Asturllionés) (the division between Asturian and Leonese is extra-linguistic, dialectal varieties mainly form an east to west division pattern with north to south strips, tilted towards southwest in eastern and central varieties, and not between Asturias and Leon, only after that there is a distinction between asturian and leonese varieties)
- Eastern Asturian / Eastern Asturian-Leonese Proper
- Asturian
- Llanes dialect
- Leonese
- Riberan / Riveran / Arribenian / Riberenian
- Asturian
- Central Asturian / Central Asturian-Leonese Proper
- Asturian
- Gijon (Xixón) dialect
- Oviedo (Uviéu) dialect
- Leonese
- Leonese (Leon city dialect) (extinct)
- Sayaguese
- Asturian
- Western Asturian / Western Asturian-Leonese Proper
- Eastern Western Asturian-Leonese
- Asturian
- Pixueto (Cudillero / Cuideiru) dialect
- Leonese
- Omañese / Oumañese
- Cepedanu
- Maragato
- Alistanu
- Asturian
- Western Western Asturian-Leonese
- Eastern Western Asturian-Leonese
- Eastern Asturian / Eastern Asturian-Leonese Proper
- Asturian (Asturianu) and Leonese (Llionés) / Asturleonese (Asturllionés) (the division between Asturian and Leonese is extra-linguistic, dialectal varieties mainly form an east to west division pattern with north to south strips, tilted towards southwest in eastern and central varieties, and not between Asturias and Leon, only after that there is a distinction between asturian and leonese varieties)
- Eastern Astur-Leonese (Cantabrian-Extremaduran)
- Astur-Leonese (Asturllionés / Astur-Llionés / Llengua Astur-Llionesa)
- Galician–Portuguese (Old Galician–Old Portuguese) (extinct)
- Galician (Galego / Lingua Galega)
- Eastern Galician
- Eonavian (Galician–Asturian)
- Central Western
- Portelas (Northwest Zamora Galician)
- Central Galician
- Mindoniensis
- Central Transitional
- Lucu-Auriensis (Lugo-Ourense)
- Eastern Transitional
- Western Galician
- Bergantiños
- Finisterra
- Pontevedra
- Eastern Galician
- Fala
- Portuguese (Português / Língua Portuguesa)
- European Portuguese / Portugal's Portuguese
- Northern dialects
- Lower-Minhoto-Durian - High-Beiran (Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense - Alto-Beirão)
- Lower Minhoto-Durian (Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense) (Nortenho) (Coastal Northern)
- High Beiran - Transmontan Beiran (Alto-Beirão - Beirão Transmontano) (Northern - Northeastern Beiran)
- High-Beiran (Alto-Beirão)
- Transmontan Beiran (Beirão Transmontano)
- High-Minhoto-Transmontan (Alto Minhoto-Transmontano) (Inland Northern)
- High-Minhoto (Alto-Minhoto)
- Transmontan (Transmontano)
- Lower-Minhoto-Durian - High-Beiran (Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense - Alto-Beirão)
- Central - Southern dialects
- Coastal Central (Estremenho)
- Standard European Portuguese / Standard Portugal's Portuguese
- Northern Estremenho
- Southern Estremenho
- Inland Central - Southern
- Inland Central / Interior Central
- Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan
- Northern Lower-Beiran (Baixo-Beirão do Norte)
- Southern Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan (Baixo-Beirão do Sul - Alto-Alentejano do Norte)
- Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan
- Southern dialects
- Ribatejan (Ribatejano)
- Southern Coastal Estremenho (Estremenho Costeiro do Sul)
- Setúbal Peninsula (Setubalense)
- Alentejan (Alentejano)
- Oliventine (Oliventino)
- Algarvian (Algarvio)
- Leeward Algarvian (Algarvio do Sotavento) (Eastern Algarvian)
- Windward Algarvian (Algarvio do Barlavento) (Western Algarvian)
- Inland Central / Interior Central
- Coastal Central (Estremenho)
- Insular Portuguese
- Madeiran (Madeirense)
- Portosantese (Portosantense)
- Madeiran (Madeirense)
- Azorean (Açoriano)
- Mariense
- Micaelense
- Terceirense
- Graciosense
- Jorgense
- Picoense
- Faialense
- Florentino
- Corvino
- Madeiran (Madeirense)
- Northern dialects
- Latin American Portuguese
- Brazilian Portuguese
- Northern dialects
- Amazofonia / Nortista
- Metropolitan (Belém do Pará, Manáus, Porto Velho)
- Bragantinense
- Camataense
- Amapaense
- Roraimese
- Acreanese
- Broad Northeastern
- Narrow Northeasern
- Eastern Northeastern
- Recifense
- Central Northeastern
- Western Northeastern
- North Coast Northeastern
- Cearense
- Fortaleza
- North Piauí
- North Maranhense
- Cearense
- Narrow Northeasern
- Bahian (Baiano)
- Soteropolitano (Salvador)
- Coastal (Costeiro)
- Inland (Interior)
- Catingueiro
- Geraizeiro / Fala dos Gerais (Fala das Minas dos Matos Gerais)
- Amazofonia / Nortista
- Southern dialects
- Broad Fluminense
- Fluminense
- Rio de Janeiro (Carioca)
- Espiritosantense (Capixaba)
- Fluminense
- Mineiro / Uplander (Montanhês)
- Broad Sulista
- Broad Paulista (Caipira)
- Paulistano
- Standard Brazilian Portuguese
- Vale do Paraíba
- Southern Paulista
- Médio Tietê
- Inland Paulista
- Mineiro Triangle
- Sertanejo
- Goiás
- Baixada Cuiabana
- Campo Grande
- Pantanal
- Brasiliense
- Serra Amazônica
- Paulistano
- Florianopolitan (Manezês)
- Narrow Sulista
- Gaúcho
- Portoalegrense
- Broad Paulista (Caipira)
- Broad Fluminense
- Northern dialects
- Uruguayan Portuguese / Fronteiriço
- Brazilian Portuguese
- African Portuguese
- Cape Verdean
- Guinean / Guinea-Bissau Portuguese
- Equatoguinean
- Sao Tomean / São Tomé and Principe Portuguese
- Angolan
- Mozambican
- Asian Portuguese
- Judaeo-Portuguese (Judeu-Português) (extinct)
- Mixed Portuguese-Spanish-Asturo-Leonese
- Portuguese-based Cant (Portuguese-based Cryptolect)
- European Portuguese / Portugal's Portuguese
- Galician (Galego / Lingua Galega)
- Castilian languages (dialect continuum)
- Andalusi Romance (extinct) (dialect continuum)[37]
- Gallo-Romance languages (dialect continuum)
- Disputed Italo-Western
- Eastern Romance languages
- Proto-Romanian / Common Romanian (dialect continuum) (extinct)
- South
- Aromanian (Rrãmãneshti / Armãneashti / Armãneshce / Limba Rrãmãniascã / Limba Armãneascã / Limba Armãneshce)
- Northern Aromanian
- Southern Aromanian
- Megleno-Romanian (Vlăhește)
- Aromanian (Rrãmãneshti / Armãneashti / Armãneshce / Limba Rrãmãniascã / Limba Armãneascã / Limba Armãneshce)
- North
- Romanian (Limba Română / Românește)
- Old Romanian (Daco-Romanian)
- Modern Romanian
- Romanian dialects (Graiuri)
- Northern Romanian
- Banatian (Bănățean)
- Crișanian
- Maramureșian (Maramureșean)
- Bukovinian Romanian dialect
- Transylvanian varieties of Romanian (Ardelenesc)
- Moldavian (Moldovenesc)
- Southern Romanian
- Northern Romanian
- Romanian dialects (Graiuri)
- Modern Romanian
- Old Romanian (Daco-Romanian)
- Istro-Romanian (Rumârește, Vlășește)
- Romanian (Limba Română / Românește)
- South
- Proto-Romanian / Common Romanian (dialect continuum) (extinct)
- Italo-Western languages (dialect continuum)
- Southern Romance
- Insular Romance (dialect continuum)
- Sardinian (Sardu or Lingua Sarda / Limba Sarda)
- Logudorese-Nuorese
- Logudurese
- Nuorese
- Campidanese
- Cagliaritano (Casteddaiu)
- Logudorese-Nuorese
- Sardinian (Sardu or Lingua Sarda / Limba Sarda)
- African Romance (extinct)
- Insular Romance (dialect continuum)
- Continental Romance
- Romance (dialect continuum)
- Classical Latin (LINGVA LATINA – Lingua Latina) (extinct)
- Old Latin (Early Latin / Archaic Latin) (Prisca Latina / Prisca Latinitas) (extinct)
- Osco-Umbrian (Sabellic) (all extinct)
Celtic languages
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BCE
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BCE
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> the six Celtic nations which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the Early Modern period
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today
- Proto-Celtic (extinct)
- Continental Celtic (extinct)
- Insular Celtic
- Brittonic / British (P Celtic)
- Common Brittonic / Old Brittonic (extinct)
- Southwestern Brittonic (dialect continuum)
- Old Cornish (extinct)
- Middle Cornish (extinct)
- Cornish (Modern Cornish) (Kernowek)
- Middle Cornish (extinct)
- Old Breton (extinct)
- Middle Breton (extinct)
- Breton (Modern Breton) (Brezhoneg)
- Trégorrois (Tregerieg)
- Léonard (Leoneg)
- Cornouaillais (Kerneveg)
- Vannetais (Gwenedeg)
- Batz-sur-Mer (extinct)
- Breton (Modern Breton) (Brezhoneg)
- Middle Breton (extinct)
- Old Cornish (extinct)
- Western Brittonic (Dialect continuum)
- Old Welsh (extinct)
- Middle Welsh (extinct)
- Welsh (Modern Welsh) (Cymraeg / y Gymraeg)
- Southeastern (Gwenhwyseg)
- Southwestern (Dyfedeg)
- Central-Northeastern (Powyseg)
- Northwestern (Gwyndodeg)
- Patagonian Welsh (Cymraeg y Wladfa)
- Welsh (Modern Welsh) (Cymraeg / y Gymraeg)
- Middle Welsh (extinct)
- Cumbric (extinct)
- Ivernic? (hypothetical) (extinct)
- Old Welsh (extinct)
- Southwestern Brittonic (dialect continuum)
- Pictish (extinct)
- Common Brittonic / Old Brittonic (extinct)
- Goidelic (Q Celtic) (dialect continuum)
- Primitive Irish (extinct)
- Old Irish (Goídelc) (extinct)
- Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg) (extinct)
- Irish / Irish Gaelic (Modern Irish) (Gaeilge)
- Standard Irish (An Caighdeán Oifigiúil)
- Leinster Irish (extinct)
- Connacht Irish (Gaeilge Chonnacht)
- Munster Irish (Gaelainn na Mumhan)
- Newfoundland Irish (in Newfoundland) (extinct)
- Ulster Irish (Gaeilg Uladh / Canúint Uladh) (in Ulster) (Tuaisceartach – Northern)
- Antrim Irish (extinct)
- Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) (not to be confused with Scots or Scottish English)
- Mid-Minch Gaelic (Gàidhlig Meadhan na Mara) (Standard Scottish Gaelic)
- Hebridean / Hebridean Gaelic
- East Sutherland Gaelic (Gàidhlig Chataibh) (extinct)
- Canadian Gaelic / Cape Breton Gaelic
- Galwegian Gaelic (extinct)
- Arran Gaelic (extinct)
- Deeside Gaelic (extinct)
- Beurla Reagaird (Scottish Gaelic-based cant)
- Manx Gaelic (Gaelg / Gailck)
- Northern Manx (Gaelg y Twoaie)
- Douglas Manx (?) (Gaelg y Doolish)
- Southern Manx (Gaelg y Jiass)
- Irish / Irish Gaelic (Modern Irish) (Gaeilge)
- Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg) (extinct)
- Old Irish (Goídelc) (extinct)
- Primitive Irish (extinct)
- Brittonic / British (P Celtic)
Germanic languages
- Proto-Germanic (extinct)
- East Germanic / Oder-Vistula Germanic (extinct)
- Northwest Germanic
- West Germanic
- Elbe Germanic / Irminonic / Herminonic
- Langobardic / Lombardic (extinct)
- Suebian (extinct) [41]
- High German languages
- Old High German
- Middle High German
- Early New High German
- New High German
- Central German / Middle German
- East Central German[42]
- Old Thuringian (extinct)
- Thuringian-Upper Saxon
- Thuringian
- Central Thuringian
- West Thuringian
- East Thuringian
- North Thuringian
- Central Thuringian
- Upper Saxon
- Easterlandic
- Meißen dialect
- Erzgebirgisch
- Northwestern Bohemian
- North Upper Saxon-South Marchian
- Thuringian
- Lusatian
- Silesian–Vilamovian
- Silesian German (Schlesisch)
- West Silesian
- Lowland Silesian
- Middle / Central Silesian
- Mountain Silesian
- South-East Silesian
- Vilamovian-Haltsnovian (Bielsko-Biała language island)
- Wymysorys / Vilamovian (Wilmesaurisch)
- Haltsnovian / Altsnerisch
- Silesian German (Schlesisch)
- High Prussian
- Oberländisch
- Rosenbergisch
- Breslau(i)sch / Ermländisch
- Oberländisch
- Thuringian-Upper Saxon
- Old Thuringian (extinct)
- East Central German[42]
- Standard German / Standard High German
- Upper German
- East Franconian
- Lower East Franconian
- Upper East Franconian
- South East Franconian
- South Franconian / South Rhine Franconian (Südfränkisch)
- Low Neckar
- Enzian
- Swabian-Alemannic
- Swabian
- East Swabian
- West Swabian
- Low Swabian
- Upper Swabian
- Alemannic
- Low Alemannic German / Upper Rhine Alemannic
- Alsatian
- Alsatian diaspora
- North Breisgau
- Basel German
- Alsatian
- Lake Constance Alemannic (Bodenseealemannisch)
- High Alemannic German
- Vorarlbergisch
- Liechtensteinisch
- Eastern
- Western
- Highest Alemannic
- Low Alemannic German / Upper Rhine Alemannic
- Swabian
- Bavarian / Austro-Bavarian
- Northern Bavarian (Upper Palatine / Bavarian Nordgau)
- Central Bavarian
- Southern Bavarian
- Tirolese
- Old Hutterite German (extinct)
- Carinthian / German Carinthian
- German Carinthian diaspora
- Mòcheno (Bersntoler sproch)
- Cimbrian (Tzimbar)
- Tirolese
- East Franconian
- Central German / Middle German
- New High German
- Early New High German
- Middle High German
- Old High German
- High German languages
- Weser–Rhine Germanic / Istvaeonic
- West Central German
- Rhine Franconian / Rhenish Franconian
- Hessian
- North Hessian
- Central Hessian
- East Hessian
- South Hessian
- Pfälzisch–Lothringisch
- Palatine German (Lower Palatine)
- Palatine diaspora
- Lorraine Franconian
- Palatine German (Lower Palatine)
- Hessian-Palatine Koiné (Hessian-Palatine diaspora)
- Hessian
- Central Franconian / Middle Franconian
- Moselle Franconian
- East Moselle Franconian
- Siegerländisch
- Untermosellanisch
- Trierisch
- Hunsrückisch
- West Moselle Franconian
- West-Westerwäldisch
- Southern Eifel
- Luxembourgish
- Moselle Franconian diaspora
- Zipser-Gründlerisch
- Gründlerisch (Lower Zipser)
- Upper Zipser
- Transylvanian Saxon
- Zipser-Gründlerisch
- East Moselle Franconian
- Ripuarian / Ripuarian Franconian
- Moselle Franconian
- Yiddish / Jewish German / Judeo-German
- Western Yiddish
- Midwestern
- Southwestern
- Northwestern
- Transitional Yiddish dialects
- Western (Bohemia, Moravia, west Slovakia, and west Hungary Yiddish)
- Eastern (Hungarian lowlands, Transylvania, and Carpathian Rus Yiddish)
- Eastern Yiddish
- Middle / Central Yiddish (Poylish or "Polish" Yiddish)
- Southeastern Yiddish (Ukrainish or "Ukrainian" Yiddish)
- Northern / Northeastern Yiddish (Litvish or "Lithuanian" Yiddish)
- Udmurtish
- Southern
- Central
- Klezmer-loshn (extinct)
- Western Yiddish
- Rhine Franconian / Rhenish Franconian
- Low Franconian languages
- Old Low Franconian
- Meuse-Rhenish
- Bergish
- Limburgish
- East Limburgish - Ripuarian transitional area
- East Limburgish
- Central Limburgish
- West Limburgish
- West Low Franconian / North Low Franconian
- Middle Dutch
- Dutch
- Kleverlandish
- Central Dutch
- Hollandic[43]
- Utrechts-Alblasserwaards
- South Hollandic
- The Hague
- Afrikaans
- Kaaps[44]
- Eastern Cape
- Orange River
- Namibian Afrikaans
- Patagonian Afrikaans
- Amsterdams
- Zaans
- West Frisian Dutch
- Amelands
- Bildts
- Stadsfries
- Surinamese Dutch
- Indonesian Dutch
- Hollandic[43]
- Brabantian
- East Brabantian
- South Brabantian
- West Brabantian
- Brabantian diaspora
- Pella Dutch / Iowa Dutch
- Flemish
- East Flemish[45]
- West Flemish-Zeelandic
- Dutch
- Middle Dutch
- Meuse-Rhenish
- Old Low Franconian
- West Central German
- North Sea Germanic / Ingvaeonic
- Old Low German
- Middle Low German
- Low German / Low Saxon
- Northern Low German
- Northern Low Saxon
- Schleswigsch
- Holsteinisch
- Dithmarsisch
- Hamburgisch[46]
- Traditional Hamburgisch
- Finkwarder Platt
- Olwarder Platt
- Veerlanner Platt
- Barmbeker Platt
- Traditional Hamburgisch
- Elb-Weserländisch
- North Hannoverian
- Oldenburgisch
- Friso-Saxon / Frisian Low Saxon
- East Frisian Low Saxon
- Gronings
- Westkwartiers
- Stellingwarfs
- Mecklenburgian-West Pomeranian
- Mecklenburgian
- Wendlandian
- Strelitzisch
- West Pomeranian / Fore Pomerania
- East Pomeranian / Farther Pomeranian (not to be confused with Slavic Pommeranian)
- Coastal
- West Coastal
- East Costal
- Bublitzer
- Inland
- South
- Pomerelian
- Koschneiderisch
- Coastal
- Low Prussian
- West Low Prussian
- Vistulan / Weichseler
- Dantzigian
- Werdersch
- Nehrungisch
- West Low Prussian diaspora
- Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German (Low Saxon, Frisian and Flemish substrates)
- Vistulan / Weichseler
- East Low Prussian
- Elbingian
- Mundart des Kürzungsgebiets
- Westkäslausch
- Ostkäslausch
- Natangian
- Bartisch
- Samlandic
- Niederungish
- Eastern Low Prussian / Easternmost Low Prussian
- West Low Prussian
- Northern Low Saxon
- Southern Low German
- Eastphalian
- Heide-Ostfälisch
- Central Eastphalian
- Bördeplatt
- Bode-Ostfälisch
- Göttingisch-Grubenhagensch
- Westphalian
- South Westphalian
- Münsterländisch
- Westmünsterländisch
- Gelders-Overijssels
- Drents
- Tweants
- Grafschafter Platt
- Emsländer Platt / Nordemsländisch
- Westerwolds
- Marchian (Märkisch) / Brandenburgian (Brandenburgisch)
- North Marchian
- Middle Marchian
- Middle Pomeranian Marchian
- Old South Marchian (extinct)
- Eastphalian
- Northern Low German
- Low German / Low Saxon
- Middle Low German
- Anglo-Frisian languages
- Anglic languages
- Old English (extinct)
- Angles dialects
- Mercian / Southumbrian
- Old Northumbrian
- Jutes dialect
- Saxons dialect (Insular Saxon, West Saxon)
- Middle English (extinct)
- Midland
- East Midland
- West Midland
- Northern
- Early Scots (extinct)
- Fingallian (extinct)
- Yola (extinct)
- Kentish (Middle English)
- Southern (Middle English)
- Early Modern English
- Modern English
- English
- Standard English
- European English
- North American English
- Caribbean English
- South Atlantic English
- Falkland Islands English
- Oceanian English
- Jewish English
- Asian English
- East Asian English
- South Asian English
- Southeast Asian English
- African English
- Cameroonian English
- Gambian English
- Ghanaian English
- Kenyan English
- Liberian English
- Malawian English
- Namibian English
- Nigerian English
- Sierra Leonean English
- South African English
- Cape Flats English
- Black South African English
- Indian South African English
- White South African English
- South Atlantic English
- Tanzanian English
- Ugandan English
- Zimbabwean English
- Zulu English
- Antarctic English
- English
- Modern English
- Midland
- Angles dialects
- Frisian languages
- Old Frisian
- Middle Frisian
- North Frisian
- East Frisian
- Saterland Frisian
- Harlingerland Frisian (extinct)
- Upgant Frisian (extinct)
- Wangerooge Frisian (extinct)
- Wursten Frisian (extinct)
- West Frisian
- Middle Frisian
- Old Frisian
- Old English (extinct)
- Anglic languages
- Old Low German
- Elbe Germanic / Irminonic / Herminonic
- West Germanic
- North Germanic
- Proto-Norse/Proto-Scandinavian (extinct)
- Old Norse (extinct)
- East Scandinavian
- Old East Norse (extinct)
- Old Gutnish (extinct)
- Old Swedish (extinct)
- Old Danish (extinct)
- Middle Danish (extinct)
- Danish
- Standard Danish
- Danish dialects
- Eastern Danish
- Insular Danish
- Zealandic Danish
- Southern Islands Danish
- Funen
- Jutlandic
- Eastern
- Western
- Southern
- Danish-based standards
- Danish
- Middle Danish (extinct)
- Dalecarlian
- Old East Norse (extinct)
- West Scandinavian
- Old West Norse (extinct)
- Old Norwegian (extinct)
- Middle Norwegian (extinct)
- Norwegian
- Norwegian Standards
- Norwegian Høgnorsk
- Landsmål
- Samnorsk (Nynorsk-Bokmål Koiné)
- Dano-Norwegian
- Norwegian Høgnorsk
- Norwegian dialects
- Norwegian Standards
- Early Faroese
- Old Faroese
- Norn (extinct)
- Old Icelandic
- Icelandic
- Greenlandic Norse (extinct)
- Norwegian
- Middle Norwegian (extinct)
- Old Norwegian (extinct)
- Old West Norse (extinct)
- East Scandinavian
- Old Norse (extinct)
- Proto-Norse/Proto-Scandinavian (extinct)
Balto-Slavic languages
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Baltic languages
- Proto-Baltic (extinct)
- Dnieper-Oka (extinct)
- Golyad / East Galindian (extinct)
- Eastern Baltic
- Old Latvian (Old Latgalian) (extinct)
- Latvian / Broad Latvian
- Latvian dialects
- Latgalian / High Latgalian / High Latvian (Highland Latvian)
- Standard Latgalian
- Latgalian dialects
- Latgalian Proper / Non-Selonic
- Selonic
- Latvian (Lowland Latvian)
- Middle / Central
- Standard Latvian
- Middle / Central Proper / Vidzeme / Low Latgalian
- Semigallic
- Curonic / Latvian Curonian
- Kursenieki / Curonian Isthmus Latvian / New Curonian
- Livonic Latvian / Tamian
- Vidzeme Livonic / Central Region Livonic
- Courland / North Courland Livonic / Tāmnieku
- Middle / Central
- Latgalian / High Latgalian / High Latvian (Highland Latvian)
- Latvian dialects
- Latvian / Broad Latvian
- Selonian (extinct)
- Semigallian (extinct)
- Old Lithuanian (extinct)
- Lithuanian / Broad Lithuanian
- Lithuanian dialects
- Aukštaitian (Highland Lithuanian)
- Standard Lithuanian
- Highland Lithuanian dialects
- Eastern
- Western
- Suvalkian / Sudovic Aukštaitian
- Southern / Dzūkian
- Samogitian (Lowland Lithuanian)
- Southern
- Northern / Curonic Samogitian
- Western
- Aukštaitian (Highland Lithuanian)
- Lithuanian dialects
- Lithuanian / Broad Lithuanian
- Old Latvian (Old Latgalian) (extinct)
- Western Baltic
- Old Prussian / Baltic Prussian (extinct)
- New Prussian (Revived Prussian)
- Skalvian (extinct)
- Galindian / West Galindian (extinct)
- Sudovian / Yatvingian (extinct)
- Curonian / Old Curonian? (extinct)
- Pomeranian Baltic (extinct)
- Old Prussian / Baltic Prussian (extinct)
- Dnieper-Oka (extinct)
Slavic languages
- Proto-Slavic (extinct)
- East Slavic languages
- Old East Slavic / Common East Slavic / Old Russian (broad sense of East Slavic) (extinct)
- Southern Old East Slavic (all East Slavic except Old Novgorodian)
- Ruthenian / Southwestern-Southern-Central Old East Slavic (extinct)
- Southwestern Old East Slavic
- Rusyn
- Carpathian Rusyn
- Hutsul / Eastern Carpathian
- Boyko / North Carpathian
- Transcarpathian
- Lemko / West Carpathian
- Pannonian Rusyn / Bačka Rusyn (East Slavic influenced by Slovak or a West Slavic language closer to Slovak)
- Carpathian Rusyn
- Rusyn
- Southern Old East Slavic
- Ukrainian
- Ukrainian dialects
- Southwestern Ukrainian (Western Southern Ukrainian)
- Volhynian-Podilian
- Galician–Bukovinian
- Dniestrian / Upper Dniestrian / Opilia
- Upper Sannian
- Pokuttia–Bukovina
- Diaspora dialect
- Southeastern Ukrainian (Eastern Southern Ukrainian)
- Middle Dnieprian
- Standard Ukrainian
- Balachka / Kuban
- Slobozhan
- Steppe
- Middle Dnieprian
- Northern Ukrainian / Polesian / Polisian
- East Polesian
- Central Polesian
- West Polesian
- Southwestern Ukrainian (Western Southern Ukrainian)
- Ukrainian dialects
- Ukrainian
- Central Old East Slavic
- Belarusian
- Belarusian dialects
- Southwestern Belarusian
- Middle Belarusian
- Northeastern Belarusian
- Belarusian dialects
- Belarusian
- Southwestern Old East Slavic
- Northeastern Old East Slavic
- Russian
- Russian dialects
- Spoken mainly by Ethnic Russians
- Southern Russian
- Western / Russian-Belarusian
- Upper Dnieperian
- Upper Desnian
- Kursk-Orel / Orlovsky
- Tulian
- Yeletsian
- Oskolian
- Ryazanian
- Southern Russian Diaspora
- Central-Northern
- Central Russian / Middle Russian
- West Central
- Pskovian
- Lake Peipus
- Gdovian
- Novgorodian
- Torzhokian
- Saint-Petersburgish
- Standard Russian (Saint-Petersburg Norm)
- East Central
- West Central
- Northern Russian
- Central Russian / Middle Russian
- Russian Diaspora dialects (see Geographical distribution of Russian speakers)
- Neighbouring countries of Russia (spoken by ethnic Russians)
- Ukrainian
- Belarusian
- Latvian Russian
- Lithuanian Russian
- Estonian Russian
- Kazakh Russian
- Eastern Europe
- Transnistrian Russian
- North America
- Neighbouring countries of Russia (spoken by ethnic Russians)
- Southern Russian
- Spoken by Non-Ethnic Russians (overlapping with native languages)
- In Eastern Europe
- Ukrainian (spoken by Ukrainians, not ethnic Russians)
- Belarusian (spoken by Belarusians, not ethnic Russians)
- Moldovan Russian (spoken by Moldovans, not ethnic Russians)
- In Russia
- European Russia
- Mordvin Russian
- Mari Russian
- Udmurt Russian
- Komi Russian
- Karelian Russian
- Chuvash Russian
- Tatar Russian
- Bashkir Russian
- Siberia / Asian Russia
- Buryat Russian
- Chukchi Russian
- Tuvan Russian
- Russian Caucasus
- Ossetian Russian
- Circassian Russian
- Abkhaz Russian
- Chechen Russian
- Dagestani
- European Russia
- In Southwest Asia / Middle East
- Georgian Russian
- Armenian Russian
- Azerbaijani Russian
- Israeli Russian (spoken by ethnic Jews)
- In Central Asia
- Kazakhstani Russian
- Kyrgyzstani Russian
- Uzbekistani Russian
- Turkmenistani Russian
- Tajikistani Russian
- In Eastern Europe
- Spoken mainly by Ethnic Russians
- Russian dialects
- Russian
- Ruthenian / Southwestern-Southern-Central Old East Slavic (extinct)
- Northern / Northwestern Old East Slavic (extinct)
- Proto-Novgorodian-Pskovian (extinct)
- Old Novgorodian (extinct)
- Proto-Novgorodian-Pskovian (extinct)
- Southern Old East Slavic (all East Slavic except Old Novgorodian)
- Mixed East Slavic languages
- Old East Slavic / Common East Slavic / Old Russian (broad sense of East Slavic) (extinct)
- West Slavic languages
- Lechitic
- East Lechitic
- Old Polish (extinct)
- Silesian / Upper Silesian / Slavic Silesian
- Middle Lechitic
- Pomeranian
- Kashubian
- Slovincian (extinct)
- Pomeranian
- West Lechitic (extinct)
- Old Polabian
- Rani
- Marcho-Magdeburgian
- Polabian / Drevanian / Lüneburg Wendish (extinct)
- Old Polabian
- East Lechitic
- Czech-Slovak
- Czech
- Bohemian (Czech proper)
- Biblical Czech
- Standard Czech
- Common Czech
- Central Bohemian
- Northeastern Bohemian
- Southwestern Bohemian
- Moravian
- Bohemian–Moravian
- Central Moravian
- Eastern Moravian
- Moravian Wallachian
- Bohemian (Czech proper)
- Slovak / Slovakian
- Western Slovak
- Central Slovak
- Eastern Slovak
- Knaanic (extinct)
- Czech
- Sorbian
- Lechitic
- South Slavic languages
- Western South Slavic
- Old Slovene / Alpine Slovene (=Slavic) / Carantanian
- Slovene
- Slovene dialects (dialect groups)
- Southeastern
- Northwestern
- Northern
- Western
- Soča-Idrija
- Venetian-Karst
- Slovene dialects (dialect groups)
- Slovene
- Kajkavian-Chakavian-Shtokavian / Central South Slavic
- Kajkavian
- Gora
- Križevci–Podravina
- Lower Sutla
- Prigorje
- Turopolje–Posavina
- Zagor–Međimurje
- Chakavian
- Shtokavian
- Western Shtokavian
- Old Western Shtokavian
- Slavonian (Archaic Šćakavian)
- Eastern Bosnian (Jekavian-Šćakavian)
- New Western Shtokavian
- Bosnian–Dalmatian (Western Ikavian / Younger Ikavian)
- Bosnian-West Herzegovinian
- Dalmatian
- Bunjevac
- Bosnian–Dalmatian (Western Ikavian / Younger Ikavian)
- New Southern Shtokavian
- Southeastern
- Užican / Užice / Zlatibor
- Eastern Herzegovinian (Neo-Ijekavian)
- Serbo-Croatian standards / Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian
- Northwestern
- Krajina
- Southwestern
- Dubrovnik subdialect (Western Ijekavian)
- Southeastern
- Old Western Shtokavian
- Eastern Shtokavian
- Old Eastern Shtokavian
- Smederevo–Vršac
- Kosovo–Resava / Resava-North Kosovo (Older Ekavian)
- Zeta–Raška / Zeta-South Sandžak (Đekavian-Ijekavian)
- New Eastern Shtokavian
- Šumadija–Vojvodina (Younger Ekavian)
- Old Eastern Shtokavian
- Western Shtokavian
- Kajkavian
- Torlakian
- Serbian Torlakian
- Timok-Prizren / South Morava - South Kosovo
- Timok-Lužnica
- Svrljig-Zaplanje
- South Morava-Prizren
- Timok-Prizren / South Morava - South Kosovo
- Transitional Bulgarian dialects (closer to Torlakian)
- Northern Macedonian (closer to Torlakian)
- Gora dialect (Torlakian ou Slavic Macedonian)
- Romanian Torlakian
- Krashovani (ethnically Croatian but closer to Torlakian in dialect)
- Serbian Torlakian
- Old Slovene / Alpine Slovene (=Slavic) / Carantanian
- Eastern South Slavic
- Old Slavonic / Old Church Slavonic (not exclusively ecclesiastical) / Old East South Slavic (extinct)
- Church Slavonic Proper
- Old Church Slavonic
- Modern East South Slavic (Slavic Bulgarian-Slavic Macedonian)
- Bulgarian (Slavic Bulgarian)
- Western Bulgarian
- Eastern Bulgarian
- Macedonian (Slavic Macedonian)
- Standard Macedonian
- Eastern-Southern
- Eastern
- Southern
- Southeastern
- Southwestern
- Western
- Bulgarian (Slavic Bulgarian)
- Church Slavonic Proper
- Old Slavonic / Old Church Slavonic (not exclusively ecclesiastical) / Old East South Slavic (extinct)
- Western South Slavic
- East Slavic languages
Indo-Iranian languages
- Proto-Indo-Iranian (extinct)
- Iranian languages
- Nuristani languages
- Indo-Aryan languages
- Badeshi (unclassified)
Iranian languages
- Proto-Iranian
- Eastern Iranian languages
- Northeastern Iranian languages
- Old Northeast Iranian
- Scytho-Sarmatian
- Cimmerian (extinct)
- Pontic Scythian (extinct)
- Sarmatian (extinct)
- Alanic (extinct)
- Ossetian
- Iron Ossetian
- Digor Ossetian
- Jassic (extinct)
- Ossetian
- Alanic (extinct)
- Scytho-Khotanese (extinct)
- Tumshuqese (extinct)
- Kanchaki (extinct)
- Khotanese (extinct)[48]
- Khwarazmian / Chorasmian[49] (extinct)
- Sogdian (extinct)
- Scytho-Sarmatian
- Old Northeast Iranian
- Southeastern Iranian languages
- Old Southeast Iranian
- Avestan (extinct)
- Old Avestan / "Gathic Avestan"[50] (extinct)
- Young Avestan / Younger Avestan (extinct)[51][52] (extinct)
- Old Avestan / "Gathic Avestan"[50] (extinct)
- Old Pakhto
- Pakhto / Pashto / Pathan
- Northern Pashto
- Northern dialect
- Yusufzai dialect
- Southern Pashto
- Durrani dialect
- Northern Pashto
- Wanetsi
- Pakhto / Pashto / Pathan
- Ormuri-Parachi
- Bactrian (extinct)[53]
- Pamir languages
- Avestan (extinct)
- Old Southeast Iranian
- Northeastern Iranian languages
- Western Iranian languages
- Northwestern Iranian languages / Northern Western Iranian
- Median / Medic (extinct)
- Razi (extinct)
- Kurdish
- Zaza-Gorani
- Old Azeri (extinct)
- Tati
- Karingani
- Kabatei
- Rudbari
- Taromi
- Talysh
- Gozarkhani
- Kajali
- Koresh-e Rostam
- Razajerdi
- Shahrudi
- Ashtiani
- Judeo-Hamedani-Borujerdi
- Khunsari
- Northwestern Fars
- Judeo-Golpaygani (extinct)
- Gazi
- Soi / Sohi
- Sivandi
- Natanzi
- Zoroastrian Dari
- Nayini / Na'ini / Biyabanak
- Khuri
- Balochi
- Median / Medic (extinct)
- Parthian (extinct)
- Caspian
- Semnani
- Semnani proper
- Sangsari / Sangisari
- Lasgerdi-Sorkhei
- Mazanderani / Tabari
- Gorgani (extinct)
- Daylami / Daylami (extinct)
- Gilaki
- Semnani
- Southwestern Iranian languages/Southern Western Iranian
- Old Persian (𐎠𐎼𐎹 – Ariya) (extinct)
- Middle Persian (𐭯𐭠𐭫𐭮𐭩𐭪 – Pārsīk or Pārsīg) (extinct)
- Persian
- Indo-Persian (extinct)
- Iranian Persian
- Dari / Afghanistan Persian
- Pahlavni / Pahlavani (extinct)
- Judeo-Persian
- Aimaq / Aimaqi / Aimaq Persian
- Tajik / Tajiki Persian
- Tat / Caucasus Tat / Persian Tat
- Muslim/Christian Tat
- Judeo-Tat / Judeo-Persian Tat
- Persian
- Middle Persian (𐭯𐭠𐭫𐭮𐭩𐭪 – Pārsīk or Pārsīg) (extinct)
- Kuhmareyi
- Luri
- Southern Luri
- Northern Luri / Central Luri
- Bakhtiari
- Old Persian (𐎠𐎼𐎹 – Ariya) (extinct)
- Khuzestani Persian
- Dezfuli–Shushtari
- Achomi
- Garmsiri
- Bashkardi / Bashagerdi / Bashaka
- Kumzari
- Khargi
- Old Kazeruni (extinct)
- Northwestern Iranian languages / Northern Western Iranian
- Unclassified Indo-Iranian
- Kambojan (extinct)
- Eastern Iranian languages
Nuristani languages
- Proto-Nuristani (extinct) [55][56]
Indo-Aryan languages
Dardic<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Northwestern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Western <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Northern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Central <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Eastern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> Southern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" /> <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
- Proto-Indo-Aryan (extinct)
- Old Indo-Aryan (extinct)
- Mitanni-Aryan (extinct)
- Early Old Indo-Aryan – Vedic Sanskrit / Rigvedic Sanskrit
- Ashokan Prakrit (extinct)
- Late Old Indo-Aryan – Sanskrit
- Middle Indo-Aryan (extinct)
- Dardic
- Gandhari Prakrit (extinct)
- Niya Prakrit[15][57] / Kroraina Prakrit / Niya Gāndhārī (extinct)
- Chitral languages
- Kashmiri / Koshur
- Kohistani languages
- Pashayi / Pashai
- Kunar languages
- Dameli
- Gawar-Bati / Narsati / Aranduyiwar
- Nangalami / Grangali
- Shumashti
- Shina languages
- Gandhari Prakrit (extinct)
- North-Western Indo-Aryan
- Punjabi languages
- Sindhi languages
- Northern Indo-Aryan
- Western Indo-Aryan
- Gurjar apabhraṃśa
- Rajasthani
- Gujarati
- Old Gujarati (extinct)
- Jandavra / Jhandoria
- Vaghri / Waghri / Baghri
- Aer
- Sauraseni Prakrit (extinct)
- Vasavi / Vasavi Bhil
- Bhil
- Khandeshi
- Domari-Romani
- Domari
- Seb Seliyer
- Romani
- Balkan Romani
- Vlax Romani
- Northern Romani
- Carpathian Romani
- Romungro / Romungro Romani
- Roman / Roman Romani
- Vend / Vend Romani
- East Slovak Romani
- West Slovak Romani
- South Polish Romani
- Sinte Romani (Sintenghero / Tschib(en) / Sintitikes / Manuš / Romanes)
- Welsh-Romani
- Baltic Romani
- Carpathian Romani
- Gurjar apabhraṃśa
- Central Indo-Aryan
- Sauraseni Prakrit (extinct)
- Western Hindi
- Parya
- Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (extinct)
- Awadhi
- Bagheli
- Surgujia / Sargujia / Surgujia Chhattisgarhi / Bhandar
- Chhattisgarhi
- Sauraseni Prakrit (extinct)
- Eastern Indo-Aryan
- Magadhi Prakrit (extinct)
- Pali (extinct)
- Apabhramsa Avahatta / Abahattha (extinct)
- Bihari languages
- Bhojpuri
- Mauritian Bhojpuri
- Caribbean Hindustani
- Guyanese Hindustani
- Sarnami Hindustani / Sarnami Hindoestani
- Magahi / Magadhi
- Khortha
- Maithili
- Kudmali / Kurmali / Panchpargania / Tamaria (কুর্মালী]] – কুড়মালি]] – Kur(a)mālī)
- Musasa
- Sadri / Sadani / Nagpuri
- Oraon Sadri
- Bhojpuri
- Bengali-Assamese languages
- Bengali
- Varendri
- Rarhi
- Manbhumi
- Bangali / Vangi
- Dhakaiya Kutti or Puran Dhakaiya
- Noakhailla
- Sylheti
- Chittagonian / Chattal
- Rohingya
- Kurmukar
- Bishnupriya Manipuri
- Chakma
- Tangchangya
- Hajong
- Kharia Thar
- Lodhi (?)
- Bengali
- Kamarupi Prakrit / Kamrupi Apabhramsa (extinct)
- Surjapuri / Surajpuri
- Rangpuriya / Rangpuri / Rajbanshi / Rajbangsi / Kamtapuri / Deshi Bhasha / Uzani
- Old Assamese
- Odia languages
- Old Odia
- Odia proper
- Adivasi Oriya / Adivasi Odia
- Bodo Parja / Jharia
- Sambalpuri / Western Odia
- Reli / Relli
- Kupia
- Old Odia
- Bihari languages
- Apabhramsa Avahatta / Abahattha (extinct)
- Halbic
- Southern Indo-Aryan
- Maharashtri Prakrit (extinct)
- Marathi-Konkani
- Marathic
- Konkanic
- Canarese Konkani
- Konkani
- Maharashtri Konkani
- Malvani
- Nawayathi
- Marathi-Konkani
- Maharashtri Prakrit (extinct)
- Insular Indo-Aryan
- Dardic
- Middle Indo-Aryan (extinct)
- Unclassified
- Old Indo-Aryan (extinct)
Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)
Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear
- Albanoid?
- Ancient Belgian
- Asinean / Osian / Issedonian / Wusun?
- Asinean / Osian
- Issedonian
- Wusun
- Brygian-Phrygian-Mygdonian?
- Daco-Thracian
- Elymian
- Gelonian
- Gushiean-Yuezhian?
- Liburnian
- Ligurian
- Lusitanian
- Moesian-Mysian-Paeonian-Mushkian?
- Siculian
- Venetic
Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)
Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families (?)
- Cypro-Minoan
- Eteocypriot
- Kaskian
- Lullubian
- Mannaean
- Minoan
- Paleo-Corsican
- Paleo-Sardinian
- Philistine Indo-European
- Sicanian
- Tartessian
- Trojan
See also
- List of Pidgins, Creoles, Mixed languages and Cants based on Indo-European languages
- Indo-Hittite
- Paleo-Balkan
- Daco-Thracian
- Graeco-Armenian
- Graeco-Aryan
- Graeco-Phrygian
- Thraco-Illyrian
- Italo-Celtic
Notes
References
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- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ KAPOVIĆ, Mate. (ed.) (2017). The Indo-European Languages. Template:ISBN
- ↑ a b Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press
- ↑ Ringe, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', Transactions of the Philological Society, n.º 100/1, 59-129.
- ↑ Kloekhorst, Alwin (2022). "Anatolian". In Olander, Thomas (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108758666. ISBN 978-1-108-49979-8. S2CID 161016819
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Tocharian Online: Series Introduction". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN.
- ↑ Voynikov, Zhivko. (?). Some ancient Chinese names in East Turkestan and Central Asia and the Tocharian question.
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Dolatian, Hossep (2024). Adjarian's Armenian dialectology (1911): Translation and commentary. Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-489-5.
- ↑ "A Documentation of the Zok Language (otherwise known as the Armenian dialect of Agulis) | Endangered Languages Archive". www.elararchive.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ Vaux, Bert (2007). Zok: The Armenian dialect of Agulis. p. 2.
- ↑ Bert Vaux, "Homshetsma, The language of the Armenians of Hamshen", in Hovann Simonian (2007). The Hemshin: History, Society and Identity in the Highlands of Northeast Turkey. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79830-7.
- ↑ Nikolaos G. Kontosopoulos, "Dialects and Idioms of the Modern Greek", Papyros-Larousse-Britannica (in Greek), 2007, pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-960-6715-39-6.
- ↑ Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ Horrocks, Geoffrey (2014). Greek: A history of the language and its speakers, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-78515-7.
- ↑ Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
- ↑ C.D. Buck, The Greek Dialects (1955)
- ↑ Hadodo, M. J. (2020). Cosmopolitan Constantinopolitans: Istanbul Greek Language and Identity [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. University of Pittsburgh Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences. 246 p.; 41-43. map
- ↑ Peter Trudgill (2003): Modern Greek dialects. A preliminary Classification. Journal of Greek Linguistics 4: 54–64
- ↑ Petros Karatsareas. (2013): Understanding diachronic change in Cappadocian Greek: The dialectological perspective. Journal of Historical Linguistics 3:2 (2013), 192–229. doi 10.1075/jhl.3.2.02kar
- ↑ Guardiano, Cristina; Stavrou, Melita (2019-06-12). "Adjective-Noun combinations in Romance and Greek of Southern Italy: Polydefiniteness revisited". Journal of Greek Linguistics. 19 (1): 3–57. doi:10.1163/15699846-01901001. hdl:11380/1188377. ISSN 1569-9846
- ↑ Nicholas, Nick (2019). "A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian". Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography. 1 (1): 18–68. doi:10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Adelina ÇERPJA and Anila ÇEPANI, "Albanian dialect classifications" in Dialectologia. Special issue, 11 (2023), 51-87. ISSN: 2013-2247
- ↑ Baldi, Benedetta; Savoia, Leonardo M. (2017). "Cultura e identità nella lingua albanese" [Culture and Identity in the Albanian Language]. LEA - Lingue e Letterature d'Oriente e d'Occidente. 6 (6): 45–77. doi:10.13128/LEA-1824-484x-22325. ISSN 1824-484X.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Pellegrini G., Carta dei dialetti d'Italia, CNR – Pacini ed., Pisa, 1977
- ↑ a b Vignuzzi 1997: 312, 317; Loporcaro & Panciani 2016: 229, 233
- ↑ Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. (2005). Historia de la Lengua Española (2 Vols.). Madrid: Fundación Ramón Menendez Pidal. Template:ISBN
- ↑ Marcos Marín, Francisco. (1998). "Romance andalusí y mozárabe: dos términos no sinónimos", Estudios de Lingüística y Filología Españolas. Homenaje a Germán Colón. Madrid: Gredos, 335–341. https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_ Script error: No such module "webarchive".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ "The medieval 'New England': A forgotten Anglo-Saxon colony on the north-eastern Black Sea coast" https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html Script error: No such module "webarchive".
- ↑ Harm, Volker, "Elbgermanisch", "Weser-Rhein-Germanisch" und die Grundlagen des Althochdeutschen, in Nielsen; Stiles (eds.), Unity and Diversity in West Germanic and the Emergence of English, German, Frisian and Dutch, North-Western European Language Evolution, vol. 66, pp. 79–99
- ↑ C. A. M. Noble: Modern German Dialects. Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131
- ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, "Holland, n. 1," etymology.
- ↑ Hendricks, Frank . "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".[1] Script error: No such module "webarchive". Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery. 3 (2): 6–39. doi:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38. ISSN 2221-4216. S2CID 197552885.
- ↑ Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal: De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank:
Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, entry VlamingI Script error: No such module "webarchive".;
cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek, entry flāmink Script error: No such module "webarchive".: "Morfologie: afleiding, basiswoord : flāma 'overstroomd gebied'; suffix: ink 'vormt afstammingsnamen'"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek, entry Vlaendren Script error: No such module "webarchive".: "Etymologie: Dat.pl. van flandr- 'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix -dr-.".
Cognate to Middle English flēm 'current of a stream': Middle English Compendium → Middle English Dictionary : flēm n.(2) Script error: No such module "webarchive". - ↑ Christoph, Walther; Lasch, Agathe; Kuhn, Hans; Pretzel, Ulrich; Scheel, Käthe; Meier, Jürgen; Möhn, Dieter (1985–2006), Hamburgisches Wörterbuch (2 ed.), Neumünster: K. Wachholtz, OCLC 182559541
- ↑ Simpson, St John (2017). "The Scythians. Discovering the Nomad-Warriors of Siberia". Current World Archaeology. 84: 16–21. "nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages..."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ "The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the Rigveda, and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Witzel, 1995)", quoted in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Script error: No such module "webarchive".
- ↑ "Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 2003-04, with further references)." in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Script error: No such module "webarchive".
- ↑ The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 1995; Witzel, 2000). We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran (the change of proto-Iranian *-āḭā/ă- > *-ayā/ă- and *ǰīwa- > *ǰuwa- "live," for instance, is typical of Sogdian, Khotanese, Pashto, etc. in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Script error: No such module "webarchive".).
- ↑ It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya (1983), "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ See also: Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, 1981, p 278, These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119–20, K. S. Dardi etc.
- ↑ Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
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External links
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