List of Indo-European languages: Difference between revisions

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{{legend|#c0c0c0|Non-Indo-European languages}}
{{legend|#c0c0c0|Non-Indo-European languages}}
Dotted/striped areas indicate where [[multilingualism]] is common.]]
Dotted/striped areas indicate where [[multilingualism]] is common.]]
[[File:Map-Romance Language World.png|thumb|upright=1.55|Romance languages in the world]]
[[File:Languages of North America.svg|thumb|upright=0.95|The approximate present-day distribution of Indo-European languages within the Americas by country:<br/>
[[File:Languages of North America.svg|thumb|upright=0.95|The approximate present-day distribution of Indo-European languages within the Americas by country:<br/>
[[Romance languages|Romance]]:
[[Romance languages|Romance]]:
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==Summary of historical development==
==Summary of historical development==
The ancestral population and language, [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] that spoke [[Proto-Indo-European]], are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through [[Indo-European migrations|migration]] and [[cultural influence]]. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, [[acculturation]] and [[language change]] of peoples in many regions of western and southern [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature14507|pmid=26062507|title=Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia|journal=Nature|volume=522|issue=7555|pages=167–172|year=2015|last1=Allentoft|first1=Morten E.|last2=Sikora|first2=Martin|last3=Sjögren|first3=Karl-Göran|last4=Rasmussen|first4=Simon|last5=Rasmussen|first5=Morten|last6=Stenderup|first6=Jesper|last7=Damgaard|first7=Peter B.|last8=Schroeder|first8=Hannes|last9=Ahlström|first9=Torbjörn|last10=Vinner|first10=Lasse|last11=Malaspinas|first11=Anna-Sapfo|last12=Margaryan|first12=Ashot|last13=Higham|first13=Tom|last14=Chivall|first14=David|last15=Lynnerup|first15=Niels|last16=Harvig|first16=Lise|last17=Baron|first17=Justyna|last18=Casa|first18=Philippe Della|last19=Dąbrowski|first19=Paweł|last20=Duffy|first20=Paul R.|last21=Ebel|first21=Alexander V.|last22=Epimakhov|first22=Andrey|last23=Frei|first23=Karin|last24=Furmanek|first24=Mirosław|last25=Gralak|first25=Tomasz|last26=Gromov|first26=Andrey|last27=Gronkiewicz|first27=Stanisław|last28=Grupe|first28=Gisela|last29=Hajdu|first29=Tamás|last30=Jarysz|first30=Radosław|bibcode=2015Natur.522..167A|s2cid=4399103|display-authors=29|url=http://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/population-genomics-of-bronze-age-eurasia(11286d58-42ae-4397-bc7a-3bb8b71c6c52).html|access-date=2018-11-04|archive-date=2019-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329150521/http://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/population-genomics-of-bronze-age-eurasia(11286d58-42ae-4397-bc7a-3bb8b71c6c52).html|url-status=live}}</ref> This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family.
The ancestral population and language, [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] that spoke [[Proto-Indo-European]], are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through [[Indo-European migrations|migration]] and [[cultural influence]]. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, [[acculturation]] and [[language change]] of peoples in many regions of western and southern [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature14507|pmid=26062507|title=Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia|journal=Nature|volume=522|issue=7555|pages=167–172|year=2015|last1=Allentoft|first1=Morten E.|last2=Sikora|first2=Martin|last3=Sjögren|first3=Karl-Göran|last4=Rasmussen|first4=Simon|last5=Rasmussen|first5=Morten|last6=Stenderup|first6=Jesper|last7=Damgaard|first7=Peter B.|last8=Schroeder|first8=Hannes|last9=Ahlström|first9=Torbjörn|last10=Vinner|first10=Lasse|last11=Malaspinas|first11=Anna-Sapfo|last12=Margaryan|first12=Ashot|last13=Higham|first13=Tom|last14=Chivall|first14=David|last15=Lynnerup|first15=Niels|last16=Harvig|first16=Lise|last17=Baron|first17=Justyna|last18=Casa|first18=Philippe Della|last19=Dąbrowski|first19=Paweł|last20=Duffy|first20=Paul R.|last21=Ebel|first21=Alexander V.|last22=Epimakhov|first22=Andrey|last23=Frei|first23=Karin|last24=Furmanek|first24=Mirosław|last25=Gralak|first25=Tomasz|last26=Gromov|first26=Andrey|last27=Gronkiewicz|first27=Stanisław|last28=Grupe|first28=Gisela|last29=Hajdu|first29=Tamás|last30=Jarysz|first30=Radosław|bibcode=2015Natur.522..167A|s2cid=4399103|display-authors=29|url=http://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/population-genomics-of-bronze-age-eurasia(11286d58-42ae-4397-bc7a-3bb8b71c6c52).html|access-date=2018-11-04|archive-date=2019-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329150521/http://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/population-genomics-of-bronze-age-eurasia(11286d58-42ae-4397-bc7a-3bb8b71c6c52).html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family.
By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern [[Eurasia]] (including western [[Central Asia]]).
By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern [[Eurasia]] (including western [[Central Asia]]).
In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further.
In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further.
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**Pre-[[Hellenic languages|Greek]] (2500 BC)
**Pre-[[Hellenic languages|Greek]] (2500 BC)
**Proto-[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] (2200 BC); split between [[Old Iranian]] and [[Old Indic]] 1800 BC
**Proto-[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] (2200 BC); split between [[Old Iranian]] and [[Old Indic]] 1800 BC
'''The list below follows [[Donald Ringe]], [[Tandy Warnow]] and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.<ref name="auto5">Ringe, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', ''Transactions of the Philological Society'', n.º 100/1, 59-129.</ref>''' quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), ''The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World'', Princeton University Press.
 
'''The list below follows [[Donald Ringe]], [[Tandy Warnow]] and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.<ref name="auto5">Ringe, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', ''Transactions of the Philological Society'', n.º 100/1, 59-129.</ref>''' quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), ''The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World'', Princeton University Press. The Indo-European phylogenetic tree of subfamilies or branches is also based in Chang, Chundra & Hall 2015, pp. 199–200 and Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241.


==[[Anatolian languages]] (all extinct)==
==[[Anatolian languages]] (all extinct)==
[[File:Anatolian Languages in 2nd millennium BC.jpg|thumb|'''Anatolian languages''' in 2nd millennium BC; Blue: '''Luwian''', Yellow: '''Hittite''', Red: '''Palaic'''.]]
[[File:Anatolian Languages in 2nd millennium BC.jpg|thumb|'''Anatolian languages''' in 2nd millennium BC; Blue: '''Luwian''', Yellow: '''Hittite''', Red: '''Palaic'''.]]
{{tree list}}
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Anatolian language|Proto-Anatolian]]
*[[Proto-Anatolian language|Proto-Anatolian]]<ref>Kloekhorst, Alwin (2022). "Anatolian". In Olander, Thomas (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108758666. ISBN 978-1-108-49979-8. S2CID 161016819</ref>
**Hittite (Nesitic/Central)
**Proto-Luwo-Lydian
***[[Hittite language|Hittite]] (Nesite) (𒉈𒅆𒇷 – ''Nesili'')
***Proto-Luwo-Palaic
****[[Ancient Cappadocian language|Cappadocian]]?
****Proto-Luwic
**[[Anatolian languages#Luwic branch|Luwic]] (Southern)
*****Proto-Luwian
***[[Luwian language|Luwian]]
******[[Luwian language|Luwian]]
****[[Luwian language#Cuneiform Luwian|Cuneiform Luwian]]
*******''[[Cuneiform Luwian]]''
****[[Luwian language#Hieroglyphic Luwian|Hieroglyphic Luwian]]
*******''[[Hieroglyphic Luwian]]''
***[[Cilician language|Cilician]]
*****Proto-Lyco-Carian
***[[Cataonian language|Cataonian]]
******Proto-Carian–Milyan
***[[Isaurian language|Isaurian]]
*******[[Carian language|Carian]]
***[[Lycaonian language|Lycaonian]]
*******[[Milyan language|Milyan]] ("Lycian B")
***[[Carian language|Carian]]
******Proto-Lycian–Sidetic
***[[Lycian language|Lycian]]
*******[[Lycian language|Lycian]]
***[[Milyan language|Milyan]] ("Lycian B")
*******[[Sidetic language|Sidetic]]
***[[Pisidian language|Pisidian]]
*****[[Pisidian language|Pisidian]]
***[[Sidetic language|Sidetic]]
****Proto-Palaic
**Western Anatolian?
*****[[Palaic language|Palaic]]
***[[Lydian language|Lydian]] / [[Maeonian]] (𐤮𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣𐤸𐤯𐤦𐤳 – ''Śfardẽtis'')
***Proto-Lydian
**Palaic (Northern)
****[[Lydian language|Lydian]]
***[[Palaic language|Palaic]]
**Proto-Hittite
**Unclassified
***[[Hittite language|Hittite]] / Nesite
***[[Kalašma language|Kalasmian]] / Kalašma / Kalasmaic <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/news-and-events/news/detail/news/new-indo-european-language-discovered/ | title=New Indo-European Language Discovered | access-date=2023-09-26 | archive-date=2023-09-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926200114/https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/news-and-events/news/detail/news/new-indo-european-language-discovered/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://languagehat.com/kalasmaic-a-new-ie-language/ |title=Kalasmaic, a New IE Language |access-date=2023-09-26 |archive-date=2023-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926115905/https://languagehat.com/kalasmaic-a-new-ie-language/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://arkeonews.net/a-new-indo-european-language-discovered-in-the-hittite-capital-hattusa/ |title=A new Indo-European Language discovered in the Hittite capital Hattusa |access-date=2023-09-26 |archive-date=2023-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926160006/https://arkeonews.net/a-new-indo-european-language-discovered-in-the-hittite-capital-hattusa/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://greekreporter.com/2023/09/23/new-indo-european-language-ancient-hatussa/ |title=New Indo-European Language Discovered in Ancient City of Hattusa |access-date=2023-09-26 |archive-date=2023-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926035253/https://greekreporter.com/2023/09/23/new-indo-european-language-ancient-hatussa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
****''Kanišite Hittite''
****''Ḫattuša Hittite''
'''Unclassified (within Anatolian)'''
*[[Kalašma language|Kalasmian]] / Kalašma / Kalasmaic <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/news-and-events/news/detail/news/new-indo-european-language-discovered/ | title=New Indo-European Language Discovered | access-date=2023-09-26 | archive-date=2023-09-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926200114/https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/news-and-events/news/detail/news/new-indo-european-language-discovered/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://languagehat.com/kalasmaic-a-new-ie-language/ |title=Kalasmaic, a New IE Language |access-date=2023-09-26 |archive-date=2023-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926115905/https://languagehat.com/kalasmaic-a-new-ie-language/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://arkeonews.net/a-new-indo-european-language-discovered-in-the-hittite-capital-hattusa/ |title=A new Indo-European Language discovered in the Hittite capital Hattusa |date=21 September 2023 |access-date=2023-09-26 |archive-date=2023-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926160006/https://arkeonews.net/a-new-indo-european-language-discovered-in-the-hittite-capital-hattusa/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://greekreporter.com/2023/09/23/new-indo-european-language-ancient-hatussa/ |title=New Indo-European Language Discovered in Ancient City of Hattusa |access-date=2023-09-26 |archive-date=2023-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926035253/https://greekreporter.com/2023/09/23/new-indo-european-language-ancient-hatussa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
'''Possibly Anatolian'''
*Hitite or Luwian
**[[Ancient Cappadocian language|Cappadocian]]?
*Luwic-Palaic
**Luwic
***[[Isaurian language|Isaurian]]?
***[[Lycaonian language|Lycaonian]]?
***Cilician?
***Commagenian?
**Palaic
***Paphlagonian?
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}


==[[Tocharian languages]] ([[Tocharian languages|Agni-Kuči languages]]) (all extinct)==
==[[Tocharian languages]] (Agnean-Kuchean) (all extinct)==
[[File:Tocharian languages.svg|thumb|'''Tocharian languages''': '''A''' (blue), '''B''' (red) and '''C''' (green) in the Tarim Basin.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Mallory |first1=J.P. |title=The Tarim Mummies |url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall |year=2000 |postscript=. |place=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-05101-1 |last2=Mair |first2=Victor H. |author-link=J. P. Mallory |author-link2=Victor H. Mair|pages=67, 68, 274}}</ref> Tarim oasis towns are given as listed in the ''[[Book of Han]]'' (c. 2nd century BC). The areas of the squares are proportional to population.]]
[[File:Tocharian languages.svg|thumb|'''Tocharian languages''': '''A''' (blue), '''B''' (red) and '''C''' (green) in the Tarim Basin.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Mallory |first1=J.P. |title=The Tarim Mummies |url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall |year=2000 |postscript=. |place=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-05101-1 |last2=Mair |first2=Victor H. |author-link=J. P. Mallory |author-link2=Victor H. Mair|pages=67, 68, 274}}</ref> Tarim oasis towns are given as listed in the ''[[Book of Han]]'' (c. 2nd century BC). The areas of the squares are proportional to population.]]
{{tree list}}
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Tocharian|Proto-Agni-Kuči]] ("[[Proto-Tocharian]]")
*[[Proto-Tocharian|Proto-Agnean-Kuchean]] ("Proto-Tocharian")
**[[Tocharian languages|North-Tocharian]]<ref>Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Tocharian Online: Series Introduction". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.</ref><ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-15034-5}}.</ref><ref>Voynikov, Zhivko. (?). ''Some ancient Chinese names in East Turkestan and Central Asia and the Tocharian question''.</ref>
**North-Tocharian<ref>Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Tocharian Online: Series Introduction". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.</ref><ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-15034-5}}.</ref><ref>Voynikov, Zhivko. (?). ''Some ancient Chinese names in East Turkestan and Central Asia and the Tocharian question''.</ref>
***[[Tocharian A]] (Agnean) (also called Turfanian, East Tocharian) (''Agni'' / ''Ārśi'')
***[[Tocharian A]] (Agnean) (Turfanian / East Tocharian) (''Agni'' / ''Ārśi'')
***[[Tocharian B]] (Kuchean) (also called West Tocharian) (''Kuśiññe'' / '' Kučiññe'')
***[[Tocharian B]] (Kuchean) (West Tocharian) (''Kuśiññe'' / '' Kučiññe'')
**[[Tocharian languages|South Tocharian]]
**South Tocharian
***[[Tocharian C]] (Kroränian) (possible)<ref name="cordis.europa.eu">{{Cite web |url=https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/626656 |title=Niya Tocharian: language contact and prehistory on the Silk Road |website=cordis.europa.eu |access-date=2023-01-05 |archive-date=2023-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127191019/https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/626656 |url-status=live }}</ref> (also called Krorainic, Lolanisch or South Tocharian){{tree list/end}}
***[[Tocharian C]] (Kroränian) (possible)<ref name="cordis.europa.eu">{{Cite web |url=https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/626656 |title=Niya Tocharian: language contact and prehistory on the Silk Road |website=cordis.europa.eu |access-date=2023-01-05 |archive-date=2023-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127191019/https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/626656 |url-status=live }}</ref> (Krorainic / Lolanisch / South Tocharian){{tree list/end}}
 
==[[Armenian language]]==
[[File:Armenian dialects, Adjarian 1909.png|thumb|'''Armenian dialects''', according to Adjarian (1909) (before 1st World War and Armenian Genocide). In many regions of the contiguous area shown in the map, Armenian speakers were the majority or a significant minority.]]
[[File:MAPArmenian.png|thumb|Modern geographical distribution of the '''Armenian language'''.]]
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Armenian language|Proto-Armenian]] (extinct)
**[[Classical Armenian]] (գրաբար - grabar) (Old Armenian)
***''Liturgical Armenian''
***[[Middle Armenian]] (Միջին հայերէն - Miǰin Hayerēn) / Cilician Armenian (կիլիկեան հայերէն - Kilikyan Hayerēn)
****[[Modern Armenian]] (աշխարհաբար - Ashkharhabar)
*****'''[[Armenian language|Armenian]]''' (հայերեն - ''Hayerēn'') (Broad Armenian) ([[dialect continuum]])
******''Armenian Standards''
*******''Eastern Armenian'' (Արեւելահայերեն - ''Arevelahayerēn'')
*******''Western Armenian'' (Արեւմտահայերէն - ''Arevmdahayerēn'')
******[[Armenian dialects]]<ref>Dolatian, Hossep (2024). Adjarian's Armenian dialectology (1911): Translation and commentary. Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-489-5.</ref>
*******'''[[Eastern Armenian]]''' ([[dialect continuum]])
********''-owm dialects''
*********''Araratian''
**********''[[Yerevan dialect|Yerevan]]''
***********Modern Eastern Armenian Standard
*********''Jugha / Julfa''
*********'''[[Zok language|Zok]]'''<ref>"A Documentation of the Zok Language (otherwise known as the Armenian dialect of Agulis) | Endangered Languages Archive". www.elararchive.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.</ref><ref>Vaux, Bert (2007). Zok: The Armenian dialect of Agulis. p. 2.</ref> (could be a distinct armenian language)
**********''Agulis''
**********''Meghri''
*********''[[Artsakh dialect|Artsakh]] / Karabagh Armenian''
*********''Eastern Armenian dialects in the diaspora''
**********''Tiflis / Tbilisi Armenian''
**********''Shamakha (nearly extinct)''
**********''Astrakhan Armenian (extinct)''
**********''[[Iranian Armenian dialect]]'' (''Persian Armenian'' - պարսկահայերէն - ''Parskahayerēn'')
***********''Northwest Iran Armenian''
************''Tabriz Armenian (Tavrezh)''
***********''North Iran Armenian''
************''Tehran Armenian''
***********''Central Iran Armenian''
************''[[New Jugha dialect|New Jugha / New Julfa]] / Isfahan Armenian''
********''-el dialects''
*********''Ardvin'' / ''Tayk''
*********''Nor Shirakan''
**********''Khoy''
**********''Maragha''
*******'''[[Western Armenian]]''' ([[dialect continuum]])
********''-gë dialects''
*********''[[Karin dialect|Karin]] (Erzurum Armenian) / Upper Armenia (Bardzr Hayk')''
*********''Turuberan''
**********''[[Mush dialect|Mush]] / Taron''
***********''Gavar''
*********''[[Armenians of Van#Dialect|Van]] / Vaspurakan''
**********''Torfavan''
*********''Tigranakert / Aghdznik (Arzanene) (nearly extinct)''
*********''[[Kharberd–Yerznka dialect|Kharpert-Yerznka]] / (Tsopk') (nearly extinct)''
*********''[[Shabin–Karahisar dialect|Shabin–Karahisar]]''
*********''Trapizon / Trabzon Armenian (nearly extinct)''
*********''[[Malatia dialect|Malatia]] (extinct)''
**********''Adiyaman''
*********''Cilician Armenian (nearly extinct)''
*********''Sueidia / Syrian Armenian''
**********''Vakıflı''
**********''Kessab''
**********''Latakia''
**********''Jisr al-Shughur''
**********''Anjar''
*********''Arabkir (almost extinct)''
*********''[[Akn dialect|Akn]] (almost extinct)''
*********''Sebastia / Sivas Armenian (nearly extinct)''
*********''Tokat (almost extinct)''
*********''Western Armenian dialects in the diaspora''
**********''West Anatolia diaspora''
***********''Nicomedia / Izmit Armenian''
***********''Constantinople / Istanbul Armenian (nearly extinct)''
***********''Rodosto / Tekirdağ Armenian (extinct)''
***********''Smyrna / Izmir Armenian''
**********''Black Sea diaspora''
***********''Crimean Armenian''
************''Nakhichevan-on-Don / [[Nor-Nakhichevan dialect|Nor Nakhichevan]] - New Nakhichevan / Don Armenian''
**********''Levant diaspora''
***********''Kaghakatsi / Jerusalem Armenian (Armenian Quarter)''
**********''European diaspora''
***********''Austria-Hungary (extinct)''
**********''North American diaspora''
**********''South American diaspora''
**********''Australian diaspora''
*********'''[[Homshetsi dialect|Homshetsi]]'''<ref>Bert Vaux, "Homshetsma, The language of the Armenians of Hamshen", in Hovann Simonian (2007). The Hemshin: History, Society and Identity in the Highlands of Northeast Turkey. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79830-7.</ref> (could be a distinct archaic armenian language)
{{tree list/end}}
 
==[[Hellenic languages]]==
{{Ancient Greek dialects}}
[[File:Modern Greek dialects.png|thumb|upright=1.1|'''Modern Greek dialects until 1923'''<ref>Nikolaos G. Kontosopoulos, "Dialects and Idioms of the Modern Greek", Papyros-Larousse-Britannica (in Greek), 2007, pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-960-6715-39-6.</ref>]]
[[File:Anatolian Greek dialects.png|thumb|upright=1.1|'''Anatolian Greek until 1923'''. '''Demotic''' in yellow. '''Pontic''' in orange. '''Cappadocian''' in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian-Greek-speaking villages in 1910.<ref>Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>]]
[[File:Modern Greek dialects en.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The distribution of '''major modern Greek dialect areas'''.]]
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]]<ref>Horrocks, Geoffrey (2014). ''Greek: A history of the language and its speakers'', 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-78515-7.</ref> (extinct)
**[[Mycenaean language|Mycenaean Greek]] (extinct)
***[[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] (Classical Greek) (Ἑλληνική – ''Hellēnikḗ'' / Ἑλληνική γλῶσσα – ''Hellēnikḗ glōssa'') (extinct) ([[Dialect continuum]])
****''[[Ancient Greek dialects]]''<ref>Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.</ref><ref>C.D. Buck, ''The Greek Dialects'' (1955)</ref>
*****''East Greek''
******''Central Group (extinct)''
*******''[[Aeolic Greek]] (extinct)''
********''Thessalian''
********''Boeotian''
********''Lesbian / Lesbos Island''
********''Asia Minor Aeolian''
*******''[[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]] (extinct)''
********''Arcadian''
********''Cypriot''
********''[[Pamphylian Greek]]'' ''(extinct)''
******''Eastern Group''
*******''[[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] (extinct)''
********''Ionic Literary Dialect''
*********''[[Homeric Greek]] / Epic Greek''
********''[[Attic Greek|Attic]] (extinct)''
*********[[Koine Greek]] (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος – hē koinḕ diálektos / Kοινὴ – Koinḕ)
**********[[New Testament|Biblical Greek]]
***********[[Septuagint|Septuagint Greek]]
************[[Jewish Koine Greek]]
***********[[Language of the New Testament|New Testament Greek]]
**********[[Medieval Greek]] / Byzantine Greek) (Ῥωμαϊκή - Rōmaïkē, Romaic - Eastern Roman Empire Greek) ([[Dialect continuum]])
***********[[Modern Greek]]
************'''[[Greek language|Greek]]''' ('''ελληνικά''' – '''''Elliniká''''') (Broad Greek) ([[Dialect continuum]])
*************''Greek Standards''
**************''[[Katharevousa]]'' (''Καθαρεύουσα'' – ''Katharevousa'') / ''Old Standard Greek''
**************''[[Demotic Greek|Demotic]]'' (''Δημοτική γλώσσα'' – ''Dimotikí glṓssa'') / ''Modern Standard Greek''
*************''[[Varieties of Modern Greek|Modern Greek dialects]]''<ref>Hadodo, M. J. (2020). ''Cosmopolitan Constantinopolitans: Istanbul Greek Language and Identity'' [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. University of Pittsburgh Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences. 246 p.; 41-43. map</ref><ref>Peter Trudgill (2003): ''Modern Greek dialects. A preliminary Classification''. Journal of Greek Linguistics 4: 54–64</ref>
**************''Southern dialects''
***************''Archaic dialects''
****************''Old Athenian''
****************''Aeginian''
****************''Kymian''
****************''Megaran''
****************''[[Mani Greek Dialect#Maniot variety of Modern Greek|Maniot]]''
*****************''[[Cargèse|Paomia-Cargèse Greek]] (Corsican Greek)'' ''(extinct)''
***************''Ionian-Peloponnesian''
****************''Peloponnesian''
****************''Ionian Islands''
****************''South Euboean''
***************''Cretan-Cycladian''
****************''[[Cretan Greek|Cretan]]''
****************''Cycladian''
***************''Southeastern''
****************''Chiote-Ikarian''
****************''Dodecanesian''
****************''Lycian Greek''
****************''[[Cypriot Greek|Cypriot]]''
***************''North Epirote''
****************''[[Himariote dialect|Himariote]]''
**************''Northern dialects''
***************''Central dialects ("Semi-Northern")''
****************''North Euboean-Sporadic''
****************''Skyriot''
****************''Mykonian''
****************''Desfinan''
****************''Lefkadan''
***************''Northern Proper''
****************''Thessalian''
****************''South Epirote''
****************''Vourbianian''
****************''Kastorian''
****************''Naousan''
****************''Macedonian Greek''
****************''Sarakatsanian (Sarakatsanika)''
****************''Thracian Greek''
****************''Rumelian Greek''
****************''[[Istanbul Greek dialect|Constantinopolitan Greek]]''
****************''Bithynian Greek''
****************''Artakian''
****************''Western Anatolian''
*****************''North Aegean''
******************''Lesbic (Lesbos Island Greek)''
******************''Lemnic (Lemnos Island Greek)''
*****************''Smyrniote (Smyrna Greek)''
*****************''Samian (Samos Island Greek)''
**************''[[Greek in Australia|Greco-Australian]]''
***********Asia Minor Greek / Anatolian Greek<ref>Petros Karatsareas. (2013): ''Understanding diachronic change in Cappadocian Greek: The dialectological perspective''. Journal of Historical Linguistics 3:2 (2013), 192–229. doi 10.1075/jhl.3.2.02kar</ref>
************'''[[Silliot Greek|Silliot]]'''
************Proto-Cappadocian
*************'''[[Pharasiot Greek|Pharasiot]]'''
*************Pontic-Cappadocian
**************'''[[Pontic Greek language|Pontic Greek]]''' '''(ποντιακά''' – '''''Pontiaká'')'''
***************''Western Pontic''
***************''Trepezuntine''
***************''Chaldiot''
***************''[[Mariupolitan Greek]] (Rumeíka)''
**************'''[[Cappadocian Greek]]''' '''(Καππαδοκικά - ''Kappadokiká'')'''
***********'''[[Italiot Greek]]'''<ref> Guardiano, Cristina; Stavrou, Melita (2019-06-12). "Adjective-Noun combinations in Romance and Greek of Southern Italy: Polydefiniteness revisited". Journal of Greek Linguistics. 19 (1): 3–57. doi:10.1163/15699846-01901001. hdl:11380/1188377. ISSN 1569-9846</ref>
************''Salentinian Greek / [[Griko dialect|Griko]]'' (Γκρίκο – ''Gríko'')
************''[[Calabrian Greek]] / Grecanico'' (Γκραίκο – ''Graíko'')
***********'''[[Yevanic language|Yevanic]]''' (Judæo-Greek / Romaniote) (probably extinct)
********''West Ionic / Euboean''
*********''Chalcidician''
********''Central Ionic / Cycladian Ionic / Northern Cycladian''
********''East Ionic / Asia Minor Ionic''
*****''West Greek / [[Doric Greek|Doric]] / Dorian (extinct)''
******''Northwest Greek / Northwest Doric (extinct)''
*******''[[Locrian Greek]] (extinct)''
*******''Phocian-Delphian''
*******''Elean''
*******''Northwest Greek koine''
******''[[Achaean Doric Greek|Achaean Doric]] (extinct)''
*******''Achaean Doric''
*******''Achaean Doric Koine''
******''Doric proper''
*******''Megarian''
*******''Corinthian''
*******''Argolic''
*******''Laconian''
********'''[[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]]''' ('''Tσακώνικα''' – '''''Tsakṓnika''''' / '''A Tσακώνικα γρούσσα''' – '''''A Tsakṓnika gloússa''''')<ref>Nicholas, Nick (2019). "A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian". Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography. 1 (1): 18–68. doi:10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68</ref>
*******''Messenian''
*******''Cretan''
*******''Cycladian Doric / Southern Cycladian''
********''Thera-Cyrenaean''
*********''Thera (Santorini) Island''
*********''Cyrenaean Greek''
*******''Asia Minor Doric''
********''Rhodian / Rhodes Island''
********''Coan / Cos Island''
**[[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Ancient Macedonian|url=http://multitree.org/codes/xmk|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131122022719/http://multitree.org/codes/xmk|archive-date=November 22, 2013|website=MultiTree: A Digital Library of Language Relationships|access-date=28 March 2016}}</ref>  (extinct)
{{tree list/end}}


==[[Albanian language]]==
==[[Albanian language]]==
Line 129: Line 362:
{{tree list}}
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] (extinct)
**'''[[Albanian language|Albanian]]''' ([[Albanian language|Modern Albanian]]) ('''''shqip''''' / '''''gjuha shqipe''''') ([[dialect continuum]])
**'''[[Albanian language|Albanian]]''' (Modern Albanian) ('''''shqip''''' / '''''gjuha shqipe''''') ([[dialect continuum]])
***'''[[Gheg Albanian]]''' ('''''gegnisht''''') ([[Albanian dialects|Northern Albanian dialect]])
***''[[Albanian dialects]]''<ref>Adelina ÇERPJA and Anila ÇEPANI, "Albanian dialect classifications" in Dialectologia. Special issue, 11 (2023), 51-87. ISSN: 2013-2247</ref><ref>Baldi, Benedetta; Savoia, Leonardo M. (2017). "Cultura e identità nella lingua albanese" [Culture and Identity in the Albanian Language]. LEA - Lingue e Letterature d'Oriente e d'Occidente. 6 (6): 45–77. doi:10.13128/LEA-1824-484x-22325. ISSN 1824-484X.</ref>
****''[[Arbanasi dialect|Arbanasi]] (Albanian of [[Zadar]], [[Croatia]])''
****'''[[Gheg Albanian]]''' ('''''gegnisht''''') (Northern Albanian dialect)
****''[[Istrian Albanian]] (extinct)''
*****''Northern Gheg''
****''[[Upper Reka dialect|Upper Reka]]''
******''Northwestern Gheg''
***'''[[Tosk Albanian]]''' ('''''toskërisht''''') ([[Albanian dialects|Southern Albanian dialect]], basis of [[Standard Albanian|Standard Modern Albanian]] but not identical)
*******''Malësia''
****''[[Lab Albanian dialect|Lab]]''
*******''Kraja''
****''[[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]]''
*******''Shkodër and Lezhë''
*****'''[[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]]''' ('''''arbërisht''''') (Tosk Albanian variety of [[Southern Italy]])
******''Northeastern Gheg''
******''[[Vaccarizzo Albanian|Calabria Arbëresh ''/'' Calabro-Arbëresh]]''
*******''East Drin basin''
*****'''[[Arvanitika]]''' (Tosk Albanian variety of [[Central Greece (geographic region)|Central Greece]])
*******''Nikaj and Mertur''
*******''Tropoja''
*******''Kosovë and Metohi / Kosovo Albanian''
*****''Central / Middle Gheg''
******''Mati''
******''[[Upper Reka dialect|Upper Reka]]''
*****''Southern Gheg''
******''Elbasan Gheg''
******''Old Tirana''
******''Peqin Province''
******''Southern Gheg diaspora''
*******''[[Arbanasi dialect|Arbanasi]]''
*******''[[Istrian Albanian]] (extinct)''
****'''[[Tosk Albanian]]''' ('''''toskërisht''''') (Southern Albanian dialect) (basis of [[Standard Albanian]])
*****''Northern Tosk''
******''Northwest Tosk''
*******''Berat''
*******''Skrapar''
*******''Vlora''
******''Northeast Tosk''
*******''Opar''
*******''Devoll''
*******''Korçë''
******''Southeast''
******''Middle Vjosa''
******''Northern Tosk diaspora''
*******''Western Thracian Tosk ([[Albanians of Western Thrace|Western Thrace Albanians dialect]])''
*****''Southern Tosk''
******''[[Lab Albanian dialect|Lab]] (Labërishtja)''
*******''East Drinos Valley''
*******''Bregdeti i Poshtëm''
*******''Vurg of Delvina''
******''[[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]] (Çamërishte)''
*******''Souliot Cham (extinct)''
*****''Transitional Northern-Southern Tosk / Tosk diaspora''
******''[[Mandritsa]] (Mandricë) Albanian / Bulgarian Albanian''
******''Ukraine Albanian'' ''([[Albanians in Ukraine]] dialect)''
******'''[[Arbëresh language|Arbërishte]]''' ([[Southern Italy]] Tosk Albanian)
*******''Apulia Arbërishte''
*******'' Molise Arbërishte / Campo Marino Albanian''
*******''Campania Arbërishte''
*******''Basilicata Arbërishte''
*******''[[Vaccarizzo Albanian|Calabria Arbërishte'' / '' Calabro-Arbërishte]]''
*******''Sicilia Arbërishte''
******'''[[Arvanitika]]''' (Greece Tosk Albanian)
*******''Viotia Arvanitika / Boeotia Arvanitika''
*******''Evia Arvanitika / Euboea Arvanitika''
*******''Attiki Arvanitika / Attica Arvanitika''
*******''Salamina Arvanitika''
*******''Peloponnese Arvanitika''
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}


Line 151: Line 433:
{{tree list}}
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Italic language|Proto-Italic]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Italic language|Proto-Italic]] (extinct)
**[[Osco-Umbrian languages]] ([[Sabellic languages]]) (all extinct)
**[[Osco-Umbrian]] (Sabellic) (all extinct)
***Umbrian
***Umbrian
****[[Umbrian language|Umbrian proper]]
****[[Umbrian language|Umbrian proper]]
Line 158: Line 440:
****[[Volscian language|Volscian]]
****[[Volscian language|Volscian]]
****[[Sabines#Language|Sabine]]
****[[Sabines#Language|Sabine]]
***[[Oscan language|Oscan]]
***Oscan
****[[Oscan language|Oscan proper]]
****[[Oscan language|Oscan proper]]
***** [[Samnites#Etymology|Samnite]]
*****[[Lucanians#Language and writing|Lucanian]]
*****[[Lucanians#Language and writing|Lucanian]]
***** [[Samnites#Etymology|Samnite]]
****[[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]]
****[[Marrucini#Language|Marrucinian]]
****[[Paeligni#Language|Paelignian]]
****[[Paeligni#Language|Paelignian]]
Line 171: Line 453:
****[[South Picene language|South Picene]] ([[Old Sabellic]])
****[[South Picene language|South Picene]] ([[Old Sabellic]])
****[[Pre-Samnite language|Pre-Samnite]]
****[[Pre-Samnite language|Pre-Samnite]]
****[[Oenotrians#Language|Oenotrian]]
**[[Latino-Faliscan languages]]
**[[Latino-Faliscan languages]]
***[[Faliscan language|Faliscan]] (extinct)
***[[Faliscan language|Faliscan]] (extinct)
Line 176: Line 459:
***[[Latino-Faliscan languages#Praenestinian|Praenestinian]] (extinct)
***[[Latino-Faliscan languages#Praenestinian|Praenestinian]] (extinct)
***[[Latin]] ({{lang|la|Lingua Latina}})
***[[Latin]] ({{lang|la|Lingua Latina}})
****[[Old Latin]] ([[Early Latin]] / [[Archaic Latin]]) (''Prisca Latina'' / ''Prisca Latinitas'') (extinct)
****[[Old Latin]] (Early Latin / Archaic Latin) (''Prisca Latina'' / ''Prisca Latinitas'') (extinct)
*****[[Classical Latin]] (LINGVA LATINA – ''Lingua Latina'') (extinct)
*****[[Classical Latin]] (LINGVA LATINA – ''Lingua Latina'') (extinct)
******''[[Standard Latin]]''
******''[[Standard Latin]]'' (extinct)
******''[[Vulgar Latin]]'' / ''Colloquial Latin'' (''sermō vulgāris'')
******''[[Vulgar Latin]]'' / ''Colloquial Latin'' (''sermō vulgāris'') (extinct)
******''[[British Latin|British Latin / Britannic Latin]]'' (not British Romance) ''(Latin that was spoken by the [[Romano-Britons]])''
******''[[Pannonian Latin]]'' (extinct)
******''[[Judeo-Latin]] (Judæo-Latin)''
******''[[British Latin|British Latin / Britannic Latin]]'' (extinct)
******[[Late Latin]]
******''[[Judeo-Latin]] (Judæo-Latin)'' (extinct)
******[[Late Latin]] (extinct)
*******''[[Ecclesiastical Latin]]'' (''Church Latin'', ''Liturgical Latin'') (''Lingua Latina Ecclesiastica'')
*******''[[Ecclesiastical Latin]]'' (''Church Latin'', ''Liturgical Latin'') (''Lingua Latina Ecclesiastica'')
*******[[Medieval Latin]]
*******[[Medieval Latin]] (extinct)
********''[[Hiberno-Latin|Hiberno-Latin / Hisperic Latin]]''
********''[[Hiberno-Latin|Hiberno-Latin / Hisperic Latin]]'' (extinct)
********[[Renaissance Latin]]
********[[Renaissance Latin]]
*********[[Neo-Latin]] or New Latin; (''Neolatina'' or ''Lingua Latina Nova'')
*********[[Neo-Latin]] or New Latin; (''Neolatina'' or ''Lingua Latina Nova'')
Line 196: Line 480:
************[[Franco-Italian]] (extinct)
************[[Franco-Italian]] (extinct)
***********[[Italo-Dalmatian languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
***********[[Italo-Dalmatian languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
************'''[[Central Italian dialect|Central Italian]]''' ('''''Italiano Centrale)'''''
************'''[[Central Italian dialect|Central Italian]]''' ('''''Italiano Mediano)'''''
*************''[[Romanesco dialect|Romanesco]]'' (''Romanesco'' / ''Romano'')
*************''Latian (Laziale)''
*************''[[Central-Northern Latian dialect|Central-Northern Latian]]'' / ''Ciociaro''<ref>Pellegrini G., ''Carta dei dialetti d'Italia'', CNR – Pacini ed., Pisa, 1977</ref>
**************''[[Romanesco dialect|Romanesco]]'' (''Romanesco'' / ''Romano'')
**************''Central-Southern''
**************''[[Central-Northern Latian dialect|Central-Northern Latian]]'' / ''Ciociaro''<ref>Pellegrini G., ''Carta dei dialetti d'Italia'', CNR – Pacini ed., Pisa, 1977</ref>
***************''[[Judeo-Roman dialect]] (Giudeo-Romanesco)''
*************''[[Sabino dialect|Sabino]]''
*************''[[Sabino dialect|Sabino]]''
*************''[[Central Marchigiano dialect|Central Marchigiano]]'' (Marchigiano Proper)
**************''Carseolano / Sublacense''
**************''Tagliacozzano''
**************''Aquilano''
*************''Umbrian (Umbro)''
**************''Southeastern''
**************''Northern''
**************''Northwestern and Viterbese''
*************''[[Central Marchigiano dialect|Central Marchigiano]]'' ''(Marchigiano Proper)''
**************''Maceratese''
**************''Anconitan''
************[[Southern Italian dialects|Southern Italian]]
************[[Southern Italian dialects|Southern Italian]]
*************'''[[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]''' ('''''Napulitano''''' – '''''O Nnapulitano''''')
*************'''[[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]''' ('''''Napulitano''''' – '''''O Nnapulitano''''')
**************''[[Molisan dialect|Molisan]]''<ref name="ReferenceA">Vignuzzi 1997: 312, 317; Loporcaro & Panciani 2016: 229, 233</ref>
**************''[[Campanian dialect|Campanian]] (Campano)''
**************''[[Campanian dialect|Campanian]]''
***************''Naples Neapolitan (Napoletano) (Naples city dialect)''
***************''[[Benevento dialect|Beneventano]]''
***************''[[Benevento dialect|Beneventano]]''
***************''[[Southern Latian dialect|Southern Latian]]''
***************''[[Irpinian dialect|Irpino]]''
***************''[[Irpinian dialect|Irpino]]''
****************''[[Arianese dialect|Arianese]]''
****************''[[Arianese dialect|Arianese]]''
***************''[[Cilentan dialect|Cilentano]]'' (''Cilentan'' / ''Northern Cilentan'')
***************''[[Cilentan dialect|Cilentano]]'' (''Cilentan'' / ''Northern Cilentan'')
**************''[[Apulian dialect|Apulian]]''
**************''[[Molisan dialect|Molisan]]''<ref name="ReferenceA">Vignuzzi 1997: 312, 317; Loporcaro & Panciani 2016: 229, 233</ref>
**************''Marchigiano Meridionale - Abruzzese''
***************''Abruzzese''
****************''[[Vastese]] (Lu Uâʃtaréule)''
***************''Teramano''
***************''Marchigiano Meridionale''
**************''[[Apulian dialect|Apulian]] (Pugliese)''
***************''[[Barese dialect|Barese]]''
***************''[[Barese dialect|Barese]]''
****************''[[Tarantino dialect|Tarantino]]''
***************''[[Tarantino dialect|Tarantino]] (Tarandíne)''
**************''[[Castelmezzano dialect|Castelmezzano]]''
**************''Lucanian''
**************''[[Northern Calabrian]]''
***************''[[Castelmezzano dialect|Castelmezzano]]'' ''(part of [[Lausberg area]])''
**************''[[Southern Latian dialect|Southern Latian]]''
***************''[[Northern Calabrian]]''
**************''[[Vastese]]''
*************'''[[Extreme Southern Italian]]''' / '''Far Southern Italian''' ([[Sicilian language|Siculo]]-[[Calabrian language|Calabrian]])
*************'''[[Extreme Southern Italian]]''' / '''Far Southern Italian''' ([[Sicilian language|Siculo]]-[[Calabrian language|Calabrian]])
**************''Southern [[Calabrian dialect|Calabrian]]''
**************''Southern [[Calabrian dialect|Calabrian]]''
**************''[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]'' / Sicilian Proper (''Sicilianu'' / ''Lu Sicilianu'')
**************''[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]'' / ''Sicilian Proper'' (''Sicilianu'' / ''Lu Sicilianu'')
***************''[[Pantesco dialect|Pantesco]]''
***************''[[Pantesco dialect|Pantesco]]''
**************''[[Cilentan dialect|Cilentano Meridionale]] (Far Southern Cilentan)''
**************''[[Cilentan dialect|Cilentano Meridionale]] (Far Southern Cilentan)''
**************''[[Salentino dialect|Salentino]]'' (''Salentinu'')
**************''[[Salentino dialect|Salentino]]'' (''Salentinu'')
***************''[[Manduriano]]''
***************''[[Manduriano]]''
************[[Tuscan Language|Old Tuscan]]
************Old Tuscan
*************'''[[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]]''' ('''''Toscano''''')
*************'''[[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]]''' ('''''Toscano''''')
**************''[[Florentine dialect|Florentine]] (Fiorentino)''
**************''Eastern''
***************'''[[Italian language|Italian]]''' ('''''Italiano''''' / '''''Lingua Italiana''''') / [[Standard Italian]]
***************''[[Florentine dialect|Florentine]] (Fiorentino)''
****************''[[Regional Italian|Tuscany Regional Italian]]''
****************'''[[Italian language|Italian]]''' ('''''Italiano''''' / '''''Lingua Italiana''''') / Standard Italian
****************''[[Regional Italian|Central Italy, Southern Italy and Sicily Regional Italian]]''
*****************''[[Regional Italian]]''
****************''[[Regional Italian|Northern Italy Regional Italian]]''
******************''Tuscany Regional Italian''
****************''[[Regional Italian|Sardinia Regional Italian]]''
******************''Central Italy, Southern Italy and Sicily Regional Italian''
****************''[[Maltese Italian]]''
******************''Northern Italy Regional Italian''
****************''[[Swiss Italian]]''
******************''Sardinia Regional Italian''
****************''[[Italo-Australian dialect|Italo-Australian]]''
*****************''[[Maltese Italian]]''
***************''[[Florentine dialect#Judeo-Florentine|Judeo-Florentine]]''
*****************''[[Swiss Italian]]''
*****************''[[Italo-Australian dialect|Italo-Australian]]''
****************''Judeo-Florentine''
***************''Pratese''
***************''Pistoiese''
***************''Pistoiese''
**************''Lucchese''
***************''Senese''
**************''[[Judeo-Livornese|Bagitto]]'' (extinct)
***************''Aretino''
***************''Casentino''
***************''Chianino''
**************''Western''
***************''Lucchese''
***************''Pisano''
***************''Livornese''
****************''[[Judeo-Livornese]] (Bagitto)'' (extinct)
***************''Grossetano''
***************''Elbano (Elba Island)''
*************'''[[Corsican language|Corsican]]''' ('''''Corsu / Lingua Corsa''''')
*************'''[[Corsican language|Corsican]]''' ('''''Corsu / Lingua Corsa''''')
**************'''Northern Corsican'''
**************''Northern Corsican''
**************'''Southern Corsican'''
**************''Central Corsican''
**************'''Central Corsican'''
**************''Southern Corsican''
**************'''[[Gallurese dialect|Gallurese]]''' ('''''Gadduresu''''')
**************'''[[Gallurese dialect|Gallurese]]''' ('''''Gadduresu''''')
**************'''[[Sassarese language|Sassarese]]''' ('''''Sassaresu''''' / '''''Turritanu''''')
**************'''[[Sassarese language|Sassarese]]''' ('''''Sassaresu''''' / '''''Turritanu''''')
************'''[[Venetian language|Venetian]]''' ('''Romance Venetian''') ('''''Vèneto''''' / '''''Łéngoa vèneta''''')
************'''[[Venetian language|Venetian]]''' ('''Romance Venetian''') ('''''Vèneto''''' / '''''Łéngoa Vèneta''''')
*************''[[Triestine dialect|Triestine]]''
*************''Lagoon Venetian''
*************''[[Fiuman dialect|Fiuman]]''
*************''Central Venetian''
*************''[[Talian dialect|Talian]]''
**************''[[Paduan dialect|Paduan]]'' (extinct)
*************''[[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo Venetian]] (Cipilegno)''
*************''Western Venetian''
*************''Trentine Venetian''
*************''Alpine Venetian''
*************''Eastern Venetian''
**************''Trevigiano''
**************''Feltrino''
**************''Colonial Venetian'' ''(Eastern Adriatic Venetian)''
***************''Bisiaco-Gradese-Maranese Venetian (Coastal Friuli)''
***************''[[Triestine dialect|Triestine]]''
***************''[[Fiuman dialect|Fiuman]]''
***************''Istro-Dalmatian Venetian''
****************''Istrian Venetian''
****************''Dalmatian Venetian''
***************''Corfiot Venetian''
*************''Venetian diaspora''
**************''Pontine Marshes Venetian (in Southeastern Lazio)''
**************''[[Talian dialect|Talian]] (Brazilian Venetian)''
**************''[[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo Venetian]] (Cipilegno) (Puebla Venetian)''
*************''[[Judeo-Venetian]] Italkian (Giudeo-Veneziano)'' (extinct)
************'''[[Judeo-Italian languages|Judeo-Italian / Italkian]]''' ('''ג'יודו-איטאליאנו''' – '''''Giudeo-Italiano''''' / '''איטלקית''' – '''''Italqit''''') ('''''La'az''''' - '''''לעז''''')
************'''[[Judeo-Italian languages|Judeo-Italian / Italkian]]''' ('''ג'יודו-איטאליאנו''' – '''''Giudeo-Italiano''''' / '''איטלקית''' – '''''Italqit''''') ('''''La'az''''' - '''''לעז''''')
*************''[[Judeo-Roman]] (Giudeo-Romanesco)''
*************''[[Judeo-Venetian]] Italkian (Giudeo-Veneziano) (from [[Venice]])'' (extinct)
************[[Illyro-Roman]] / Dalmatian (Transitional Western-Eastern Romance)
************[[Illyro-Roman]] / Dalmatian (Transitional Western-Eastern Romance)
*************'''[[Istriot language|Istriot]]'''
*************'''[[Istriot language|Istriot]]'''
*************[[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]] (Romance Dalmatian) (''{{lang|dlm|dalmato}}, {{lang|dlm|langa dalmata}}'') (extinct)
*************[[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]] (Romance Dalmatian) (''{{lang|dlm|dalmato}}, {{lang|dlm|langa dalmata}}'') (extinct)
**************''[[Dalmatian language#Ragusan|Ragusan]]''
**************''Vegliote''
**************''[[Dalmatian language#Vegliote|Vegliote]]''
**************''Ragusan''
***********[[Western Romance languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
***********[[Western Romance languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
************[[Gallo-Romance languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
************[[Gallo-Romance languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
*************[[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic]] (Cisalpine Romance)
*************[[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic]] (Cisalpine Romance)
**************'''[[Emilian-Romagnol language|Emilian-Romagnol]]''' (''Emiliân-Rumagnôl'', ''Langua Emiglièna-Rumagnôla'')
**************[[Emilian–Romagnol|Emilian-Romagnol]] ''(Emiliân-Rumagnôl)'' ([[dialect continuum]])
***************''[[Romagnol dialect|Romagnol]]'' (''Rumagnôl'')<ref name="ReferenceA" />
***************'''Gallo-Picene''' (disputed) (third component of Emilian–Romagnol continuum ?)
****************''[[Forlivese dialect|Forlivese]] (in [[Forlì|Forli]])''
****************''Urbinate''
***************''[[Emilian dialect|Emilian]]'' (''Emigliân'')
****************''Pesarese''
****************''[[Bolognese dialect|Bolognese]]''
****************''Senigallia''
****************''[[Ferrarese dialect|Ferrarese]]''
***************'''[[Romagnol]]''' (''Rumagnôl'')<ref name="ReferenceA" />
****************''[[Modenese dialect|Modenese]]''
****************''Ravennate''
****************''[[Reggiano dialect|Reggiano]]''
****************''Forlivese''
****************''[[Parmigiano dialect|Parmigiano]]''
****************''Faentino''
****************''[[Piacentino dialect|Piacentino]]''
****************''Cesenate''
****************''[[Judeo-Mantuan]]'' (extinct)
****************''Riminese''
**************''[[Vogherese]] (Pavese-Vogherese)''
****************''Sammarinese ([[San Marino]] Romagnol)''
***************'''[[Emilian language|Emilian]]''' (''Emigliân'')
****************''[[Bolognese dialect|Bolognese]] (Bulgnaix)''
****************''Modenese (Mudnaix)''
****************''[[Ferrarese dialect|Ferrarese]] (Fraraix)''
****************''Reggiano (Arzan)''
****************''Mantuan (Mantvan)''
*****************''[[Judeo-Mantuan]]'' (extinct)
****************''[[Parmigiano dialect|Parmesan (Parmigiano)]] (Pramzan)''
****************''Piacentino (Piaxintein)''
****************''Vogherese (Vugaraix)''
****************''Lunigiana Emilian (Lunizan)''
****************''Carrara Emilian (Cararein)''
****************''Massa Emilian (Masaix)''
****************''Garfagnana Emilian (Garfagnein)''
**************'''[[Lombard language|Lombard]]''' ('''Romance Lombard''') ('''''Lombard''''' / '''''Lumbaart''''')
**************'''[[Lombard language|Lombard]]''' ('''Romance Lombard''') ('''''Lombard''''' / '''''Lumbaart''''')
***************''[[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]]'' (''Lombard'')
***************''[[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]]'' (''Lombard'')
****************[[Brescian|Bressano]] / ''Bresciano (in [[Brescia Province]])''
****************''[[Brescian|Bressano]]'' / ''Bresciano''
****************''[[Bergamasque dialect|Bergamasco]]'' (Bergamàsch) ''(in [[Bergamo Province]])''
****************''[[Bergamasque dialect|Bergamasco]]'' ''(Bergamàsch)''
****************''[[Cremish dialect|Cremish]]'' (''Cremàsch'')
****************''[[Cremish dialect|Cremish]]'' (''Cremàsch'')
***************''[[Western Lombard dialect|Western Lombard]]'' (''Lombard'' / ''Lumbaart'')
***************''[[Western Lombard dialect|Western Lombard]]'' (''Lombard'' / ''Lumbaart'')
****************''[[Milanese dialect|Milanese]] (Milanés)'' / ''[[Milanese dialect|Meneghin]] (Macromilanese)''
****************''[[Milanese dialect|Milanese]] (Milanés)'' / ''Meneghin (Macromilanese)''
****************''[[Brianzöö dialect|Brianzöö]] (Lombardo-prealpino occidentale – macromilanese)''
****************''Pre-Alpine Western Lombard (Lombardo-Prealpino Occidentale)''
*****************''[[Canzés dialect|Canzés]] (in [[Canzo]])''
*****************''[[Brianzöö dialect|Brianzöö]] / Brianzolo''
****************''[[Bustocco]]-[[Legnanese]]''
******************''[[Canzés dialect|Canzés]] (in [[Canzo]])''
****************''[[Comasco-Lecchese dialects|Comasco-Lecchese]] (Lombardo-prealpino occidentale)''
*****************''[[Bustocco]]-[[Legnanese]]''
*****************''[[Comasco dialect|Comasco]]''
*****************''[[Comasco-Lecchese dialects|Comasco-Lecchese]]''
*****************''[[Laghée dialect|Laghée]]''
******************''[[Comasco dialect|Comasco]]''
*****************''[[Vallassinese dialect|Vallassinese]]''
******************''[[Laghée dialect|Laghée]]''
*****************''[[Lecchese dialect|Lecchese]]''
******************''[[Vallassinese dialect|Vallassinese]]''
****************''[[Varesino dialect|Varesino]]'' / ''[[Varesino dialect|Bosin]] (Lombardo-Prealpino Occidentale)''
******************''[[Lecchese dialect|Lecchese]]''
****************''[[Ticinese dialect|Ticinese]] (Lombardo Alpino)''
*****************''[[Varesino dialect|Varesino]]'' / ''[[Varesino dialect|Bosin]]''
*****************''[[Ossolano]]''
****************''Alpine Western Lombard (Lombardo Alpino)''
*****************''[[Ticinese dialect|Ticinese]]''
******************''[[Ossolano]]''
*****************''Valtellinese-Chiavennasco''
****************''[[Southwestern Lombard]] (Basso-Lombardo Occidentale)''
****************''[[Southwestern Lombard]] (Basso-Lombardo Occidentale)''
*****************''[[Pavese dialect|Pavese]] (in [[Province of Pavia|Pavia area]]) (strong influence from Emiliano-Romagnolo language)''
*****************''[[Pavese dialect|Pavese]]''
*****************''[[Lodigiano dialect|Lodigiano]]''
*****************''[[Lodigiano dialect|Lodigiano]]''
*****************''[[Cremunés dialect|Cremunés]] (in [[Province of Pavia|Cremona area]]) (strong influence from Emiliano-Romagnolo language)''
*****************''[[Novarese Lombard|Novarese]]'' ''(Nuares)''
****************'''[[Spasell]]''' (extinct)
*****************''[[Cremunés dialect|Cremunés]]''
**************'''[[Novarese Lombard|Novarese]]''' ('''''Nuares''''') (Lombardo-Prealpino Occidentale – Macromilanese)
****************[[Spasell]] (extinct)
**************'''[[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]''' ('''''Piemontèis''''')
**************'''[[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]''' ('''''Piemontèis''''')
***************''[[Judaeo-Piedmontese]] (Giudeo-Piemontese) (from [[Piedmont]]) (extinct)''
***************''Eastern Piemontese''
**************'''[[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]]''' ('''Romance Ligurian''') ('''''Ligure''''' / '''''Lengua Ligure''''' / '''''Zeneize''''')
****************''South-Eastern''
***************''[[Genoese dialect|Genoese Ligurian]]'' (''[[Genoese dialect|Central Ligurian]]'') (''[[Zeneize]]'')
****************''North-Eastern''
****************''[[Intemelio dialect|Intemelio]]''
***************''Western Piemontese''
***************''Canavese''
***************''[[Judaeo-Piedmontese]] (Giudeo-Piemontese) (extinct)''
**************'''[[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]] / Genoese''' ('''Romance Ligurian''') ('''''Ligure''''' / '''''Lengua Ligure''''' / '''''Zenéize''''')
***************''[[Genoese dialect|Genoese Ligurian]] (Central Ligurian) (Zenéize)''
***************''Eastern Ligurian / Spezzino (Lìgure do levànte)''
***************''Central-Western Ligurian (Lìgure centro-òcidentâle e òcidentâle / Lìgure de çéntro-ponénte)''
****************''Western Ligurian / [[Intemelio dialect|Intemelio]]''
*****************''[[Monégasque dialect|Monégasque]]'' (''Munegascu'')
*****************''[[Monégasque dialect|Monégasque]]'' (''Munegascu'')
*****************''[[Brigasc dialect|Brigasc]]''
***************''Alpine Ligurian (Lìgure alpìn)''
*****************''[[Royasc]] ([[Royasc|Roiasc]])''
****************''[[Brigasc dialect|Brigasc]]''
****************''[[Royasc]] (Roiasc)''
***************''Oltregiogo Ligurian (Lìgure de l'Oltrezôvo)'' / ''Northern Ligurian''
***************''Colonial Ligurian (Lìgure coloniâle)''
****************''Provence Ligurian / Figoun / Figon'' ''(extinct)''
****************''Capraia Ligurian (Cravaiéize)'' ''(extinct)''
****************''Corsican Ligurian''
*****************''Calvesino (Calvéize)''
*****************''Ajaccino (Ajasìn)''
*****************''Bonifacino (Bonifassin)''
****************''Sardinian Ligurian''
*****************''[[Tabarchino]] (Tabarchin)''
*****************''New Tabarchino (Lìgure de Nêuva Tabàrca)'' ''(extinct)''
****************''Gibraltar Ligurian (Lìgure de Gibiltæra)'' ''(extinct)''
****************''Chios Ligurian (Chiòtico)'' ''(extinct)''
**************'''[[Gallo-Italic of Basilicata]]'''
**************'''[[Gallo-Italic of Basilicata]]'''
**************'''[[Gallo-Italic of Sicily]]'''
**************'''[[Gallo-Italic of Sicily]]'''
Line 309: Line 677:
**************[[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto-Romance]]
**************[[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto-Romance]]
***************'''[[Friulian language|Friulian]]''' / '''Friulan''' ('''''Furlan''''' / '''''Lenghe Furlane''''' / '''''Marilenghe''''')
***************'''[[Friulian language|Friulian]]''' / '''Friulan''' ('''''Furlan''''' / '''''Lenghe Furlane''''' / '''''Marilenghe''''')
****************''[[Furlan standard|Standard Friulan]] (Furlan normalizât)''
****************''Northern Friulan''
****************''Central Friulan''
****************''Southeastern Friulan''
****************''Western Friulan''
***************'''[[Ladin language|Ladin]]''' ('''''Ladin''''' / '''''Lingaz Ladin''''')
***************'''[[Ladin language|Ladin]]''' ('''''Ladin''''' / '''''Lingaz Ladin''''')
****************''[[Ladin Dolomitan]] (Standard Ladin)''
****************''[[Fornes dialects|Fornes]]'' (?)
****************''Sella''
*****************''Athesian''
*****************''Trentinian''
*****************''Agordino''
****************''Ampezzan''
****************''[[Cadorino dialect|Cadorino]]''
****************''[[Cadorino dialect|Cadorino]]''
****************''[[Fornes dialects|Fornes]]''
****************''[[Nones dialect|Nones]]''
****************''[[Nones dialect|Nones]]''
***************'''[[Romansh language|Romansh]]''' ('''''Rumantsch''''' / '''''Rumàntsch''''' / '''''Romauntsch''''' / '''''Romontsch''''')
***************'''[[Romansh language|Romansh]]''' ('''''Rumantsch''''' / '''''Rumàntsch''''' / '''''Romauntsch''''' / '''''Romontsch''''')
****************''[[Rumantsch Grischun]]'' ''(Standard Romansh)''
****************''[[Sursilvan]]''
****************''[[Sursilvan]]''
****************''[[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]]''
****************''[[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]]''
Line 323: Line 703:
***************Southeastern Oïl
***************Southeastern Oïl
****************'''[[Franco-Provençal language|Arpitan]]''' ('''''Arpetan''''' / '''''Francoprovençâl''''' / '''''Patouès''''')
****************'''[[Franco-Provençal language|Arpitan]]''' ('''''Arpetan''''' / '''''Francoprovençâl''''' / '''''Patouès''''')
*****************''[[Valdôtain dialect|Valdôtain]] ([[Arpitan]] of [[Aosta Valley]])''
*****************''Valsoanin''
*****************''[[Valdôtain dialect|Valdôtain]]''
*****************''[[Savoyard dialect|Savoyard]]''
*****************''[[Savoyard dialect|Savoyard]]''
*****************''[[Vaudois dialect|Vaudois]]''
*****************''Genevois''
*****************''[[Dauphinois dialect|Dauphinois]]''
*****************''Vaudois''
*****************''[[Lyonnais dialect|Lyonnais]]''
*****************''Fribourgeois''
*****************''[[Jurassien dialect|Jurassien]] (Southern Franc-Comtois)''
*****************''Neuchâtelois''
*****************'''[[Faetar language|Faetar]]'''-'''[[Faetar language|Cellese]]''' ([[Arpitan]] of [[Apulia]]) ('''''[[Faetar language|Faetar-Cigliàje]]''''')
*****************''Valaisan''
*****************''Dauphinois''
*****************''Lyonnais''
*****************''Bressan''
*****************''Forézien''
*****************''Jurassien''
*****************''Burgondan''
*****************''Charolais''
*****************''Mâconnais''
*****************''Diaspora Arpitan''
******************'''[[Faetar language|Faetar-Cellese]]''' (Apulia Arpitan) ('''''Faetar-Cigliàje''''')
***************[[Old French]] (''Franceis'' / ''François'' / ''Romanz'') (extinct)
***************[[Old French]] (''Franceis'' / ''François'' / ''Romanz'') (extinct)
****************Central Oïl
****************Central Oïl
*****************[[Middle French]] (''François''/''Franceis'')
*****************[[Middle French]] (''François''/''Franceis'')
******************[[Francien language|Francien]] / Francilien ([[Île de France]] Langue d'Oïl)
******************[[Francien language|Francien]] / Francian
*******************'''[[French language|French]]''' ('''''Français''''' / '''''Langue Française''''')
*******************Francilien (Île de France Langue d'Oïl)
********************''[[European French]]''
********************'''[[French language|French]]''' ('''''Français''''' / '''''Langue Française''''')
*********************''[[French of France]]'' / ''France French''
*********************''[[European French]]''
**********************''[[Parisian French|Parisian]]''
**********************''[[French of France]]'' / ''France French''
***********************''[[Standard French]]''
***********************''Parisian''
**********************''[[Meridional French]]''
************************''[[Standard French]]''
*********************''[[Belgian French]]''
***********************''Northern French''
*********************''[[Swiss French]]''
***********************''[[Meridional French]] / Francitan''
*********************''[[Aostan French]]''
**********************''[[Belgian French]]''
*********************''[[Jersey Legal French]]''
**********************''[[Swiss French]]''
********************''[[American French]]''
**********************''[[Aostan French]]''
*********************''[[Canadian French]]''
**********************''[[Jersey Legal French]]''
**********************''[[Acadian French]]'' (''Français Acadien'')
*********************''[[American French]]''
***********************''[[Chiac]]''
**********************''[[Canadian French]]''
***********************'''[[Louisiana French]]''' ([[Cajun French]]) ('''''Français Louisianais''''')
***********************''[[Acadian French]]'' (''Français Acadien'')
**********************''[[Brayon French]]''
************************''[[Chiac]]''
**********************''[[Québec French]]'' (''Français Québécois''
************************'''[[Louisiana French]]''' ([[Cajun French]]) ('''''Français Louisianais''''')
***********************''[[Joual]]''
***********************''[[Brayon French]]''
***********************''[[Ontario French]]''
***********************''[[Québec French]]'' ''(Français Québécois)''
************************''[[Muskrat French]]''/''[[Muskrat French|Detroit River French Canadian]]''
************************''[[Joual]]''
***********************''[[New England French]]'' (''Français de Nouvelle-Angleterre'')
************************''[[Ontario French]]''
***********************''[[Missouri French]]'' / ''[[Illinois Country French]] ("Paw-Paw French")''
*************************''[[Muskrat French]]''/''[[Muskrat French|Detroit River French Canadian]]''
*********************''[[Newfoundland French]]'' (''Français Terre-Neuvien'')
************************''[[New England French]]'' (''Français de Nouvelle-Angleterre'')
*********************''[[Frenchville French]]'' (''Français de Frenchville'')
************************''[[Missouri French]]'' / ''[[Illinois Country French]] ("Paw-Paw French")''
********************''[[Saint-Barthélemy French]]'' (''Patois Saint-Barth'')
**********************''[[Newfoundland French]]'' ''(Français Terre-Neuvien)''
*********************''[[Haitian French]]'' (''Français Haïtien'')
**********************''[[Frenchville French]]'' ''(Français de Frenchville)''
********************''[[French Guiana|Guianese French]]''
*********************''Caribbean French''
********************''[[Caldoche|New Caledonian French]] ([[Caldoche]])''
**********************''[[Saint-Barthélemy French]]'' ''(Patois Saint-Barth)''
********************''[[African French]]'' / ''[[African French|Sub-Saharan African French]]'' (''Français Africain'')
**********************''[[Haitian French]]'' ''(Français Haïtien)''
********************''[[Maghreb French]]'' / ''[[Maghreb French|North African French]]''
*********************''[[French Guiana|Guianese French]]''
********************''[[Indian French]]'' (''Français Indien'')
*********************''[[Caldoche|New Caledonian French]] ([[Caldoche]])''
********************''[[South East Asian French]]''
*********************''[[African French]]'' / ''Sub-Saharan African French'' ''(Français Africain)''
*******************''[[Orleanais language|Orleanais]]'' (''[[Orléanais]]'')
*********************''[[Maghreb French]]'' / ''North African French''
*******************''[[Blésois]]''
*********************''[[Indian French]]'' (''Français Indien'')
*********************''[[South East Asian French]]''
*******************''[[Orleanais language|Orleanais]]''
*******************''Blésois''
*******************''Tourangeau''
*******************'''Percheron'''
*******************'''[[Berrichon dialect|Berrichon]]''' ('''''Berrichonne''''')
*******************'''[[Berrichon dialect|Berrichon]]''' ('''''Berrichonne''''')
*******************'''[[Bourbonnais dialects|Oïl Bourbonnais]]''' ('''''Bourbonnais d'Oïl''''')
*******************'''[[Bourbonnais dialects|Oïl Bourbonnais]]''' ('''''Bourbonnais d'Oïl''''')
****************Eastern Oïl
****************Eastern Oïl
*****************'''[[Burgundian language (Oïl)|Burgundian-Morvandeau]]''' ('''''Bregognon''''')
*****************'''[[Burgundian language (Oïl)|Burgundian-Morvandeau]]''' ('''''Bregognon''''')
*****************'''[[Frainc-Comtou dialect|Frainc-Comtois]]/[[Frainc-Comtou dialect|Jurassien]]''' ('''''[[Frainc-Comtou dialect|Frainc-Comtou]]'''''/'''''[[Frainc-Comtou dialect|Jurassien]]''''')
******************''Burgundian proper''
******************''Morvandiau''
*****************'''[[Frainc-Comtou dialect|Frainc-Comtois]] / Jurassian''' ('''''Frainc-Comtou'''''/'''''Jurassien''''')
******************''Saône''
******************''Doubs-Ognon''
******************''Lomont-Doubs''
******************''Ajoulot''
******************''Vâdais''
******************''Taignon''
*****************'''[[Champenois dialect|Champenois]]''' ('''''Champaignat''''')
*****************'''[[Champenois dialect|Champenois]]''' ('''''Champaignat''''')
******************''[[Champenois language|Western Champenois]]''
******************''Langrois''
******************''[[Champenois language|Eastern Champenois]]''
******************''Sennonais''
*****************'''[[Lorrain dialect|Lorrain]]''' ('''''Lorrain''''' / '''''[[Gaumais]]''''')
******************''Troyen''
******************''Briard''
******************''Rémois''
******************''Ardennais''
*****************'''[[Lorrain dialect|Lorrain]]''' '''''(Lorrain)'''''
******************''Nancéien''
******************''Messin''
******************''Spinalian''
******************''Deodatian''
******************''Longovician''
******************''Argonnais''
******************''Gaumais''
******************''[[Welche]]''
******************''[[Welche]]''
*****************'''[[Walloon language|Walloon]]''' ('''''Walon''''')
******************''[[Wisconsin Walloon]]''
****************Western Oïl
****************Western Oïl
*****************'''[[South Norman]]'''
*****************'''[[Angevin dialect|Angevin]]'''
*****************'''[[Angevin dialect|Angevin]]''' ('''''Angevin''''')
*****************'''Mainiot'''
******************''Mayennais (Low Mainiot)''
******************''Manceau / Sarthois (High Mainiot)''
*****************'''[[Gallo language|Gallo]]''' ('''''Galo''''')
*****************'''[[Gallo language|Gallo]]''' ('''''Galo''''')
****************Northern Oïl
****************Northern Oïl
*****************[[Old Norman]] (Old Romance Norman)
*****************[[Old Norman]] (Old Romance Norman)
******************'''[[Norman language|Norman]]''' (Romance Norman) ('''''Normaund''''')
******************'''[[Norman language|Norman]]''' (Romance Norman) ('''''Normaund''''')
*******************''[[Cauchois dialect|Cauchois]] (spoken in the [[Pays de Caux]])''
*******************''Northern Norman''
*******************''[[Augeron]] (spoken in the [[Pays d'Auge]])''
********************''High Norman''
*******************''[[Cotentinais]] (spoken in [[Cotentin]])''
*********************''[[Cauchois dialect|Cauchois]] (spoken in the [[Pays de Caux]])''
*******************''Channel Islands Norman''
********************''Low Norman''
********************''[[Auregnais]]'' / ''[[Aoeur'gnaeux]]'' (extinct)
*********************''[[Augeron]] (spoken in the [[Pays d'Auge]])''
********************''[[Guernésiais]]'' / ''[[Dgèrnésiais]]''
*********************''[[Cotentinais]] (spoken in [[Cotentin]])''
********************''[[Jèrriais]]''
********************''Channel Islands Norman''
********************''[[Sercquiais]]''
*********************''[[Auregnais]]'' / ''[[Aoeur'gnaeux]]'' (extinct)
*********************''[[Guernésiais]]'' / ''[[Dgèrnésiais]]''
*********************''[[Jèrriais]]''
*********************''[[Sercquiais]]''
*******************''South Norman''
********************''High Norman''
*********************''Évreux''
********************''Low Norman''
*********************''Argentanois''
*********************''Alençonnois''
*********************''Avranchinois''
******************''[[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]'' / ''Anglo-Norman French'' ''(Norman)'' (extinct)
******************''[[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]'' / ''Anglo-Norman French'' ''(Norman)'' (extinct)
*******************''[[Law French]]''
*******************''[[Law French]]''
*****************'''[[Picard language|Picard]]''' ('''''Picard''''' / '''''[[Chti]]''''' / '''''[[Chtimi]]''''' / '''''[[Rouchi]]''''' / '''''Roubaignot)'''''
*****************'''[[Picard language|Picard]]''' '''''(Picard)'''''
******************''[[County of Amiens|Amiénois]]''
******************''Amiénois''
******************''[[Vermandois]]''
******************''Beauvaisin''
******************''[[Thiérache]]''
******************''Vimeu''
******************''[[Beauvais]]is''
******************''Ponthieu''
******************''"Rouchi"'' – ''[[Tournaisis]] ([[Valenciennois]])''
******************''Vermandois''
******************''Thiéranchien''
******************''Artésien Rural''
******************''Cambrésien''
******************''Douaisien''
******************''Chti'' / ''Chtimi''
******************''Audomarois''
******************''Circum-Lilloises''
******************''Boulonnais''
******************''Calaisien''
******************''Dunkerquois''
******************''"Rouchi"'' – ''Tournaisin / Tournaisien (Valenciennois)''
******************''Borain'' / ''Hainaut Picard''
*****************'''[[Walloon language|Walloon]]''' '''''(Walon)'''''
******************''Western (Walon do Coûtchant / Walon Coûtchantrece)'' ''(Walo-Picård)''
******************''Central (Walon do Mitan)''
******************''Eastern (Walon do Levant)''
******************''Southern (Walon Nonnrece / Walon do Midi u Nonne)''
******************''Diaspora Wallon''
*******************''[[Wisconsin Walloon]]''
****************Southwestern Oïl
****************Southwestern Oïl
*****************'''[[Poitevin-Saintongeais]]''' ('''''Poetevin-Séntunjhaes''''')
*****************'''[[Poitevin-Saintongeais]]''' ('''''Poetevin-Séntunjhaes''''')
******************''[[Poitevin dialect|Poitevin]]'' (''Poetevin'')
******************''[[Poitevin dialect|Poitevin]]'' (''Poetevin'')
******************''[[Saintongeais dialect|Saintongeais]]'' (''Saintonjhais'')
******************''[[Saintongeais dialect|Saintongeais]]'' (''Saintonjhais'')
****************[[Zarphatic]] ([[Judaeo-French]]) (צרפתית – ''Tzarfatit'') (extinct)
****************[[Judaeo-French]] (Zarphatic) (צרפתית – ''Tzarfatit'') (extinct)
**************[[Moselle Romance]] (extinct)
**************[[Moselle Romance]] (extinct)
************[[British Romance]] (?) (language of the [[Romano-Britons]] or [[Romano-Britons|Romanised Britons]]) (extinct)
************Southern Gallo-Romance (Occitano-Romance)
************Southern Gallo-Romance (Occitano-Romance)
*************[[Old Occitan]] / [[Old Provençal]] (''Proensals'' / ''Proençal'' / ''Romans'' / ''Lenga d'Òc'' / ''Lemosin'') (extinct)
*************[[Old Occitan]] / Old Provençal (''Proensals'' / ''Proençal'' / ''Romans'' / ''Lenga d'Òc'' / ''Lemosin'') (extinct)
**************'''[[Occitan language|Occitan]]''' ('''''Occitan''''' / '''''Lenga d'Òc''''' / '''''[[Occitan language|Lemosin]]''''' / '''''Provençal''''')
**************'''[[Occitan language|Occitan]]''' ('''''Occitan''''' / '''''Lenga d'Òc''''' / '''''Lemosin''''' / '''''Provençal''''')
***************''Arverno-Mediterranean''
***************''Arverno-Mediterranean''
****************''[[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]'' (''Provençau (classical norm)'' / ''Prouvençau (mistralian norm))''
****************''[[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]'' (''Provençau (classical norm)'' / ''Prouvençau (mistralian norm))''
*****************''[[Niçard]]'' / ''[[Nissart]]''
*****************''[[Niçard]]'' / ''Nissart''
*****************''[[Mentonasc dialect|Mentonasc]]''
*****************''[[Mentonasc dialect|Mentonasc]]''
*****************''[[Shuadit]] ([[Judaeo-Provençal]] / [[Judaeo-Occitan]])'' (''Chouadit'') (''[[Shuadit|שואדית]]'' – ''[[Shuadit]]) (extinct)''
*****************''[[Judeo-Provençal|Judaeo-Provençal]]'' ''(Shuadit / Chouadit)'' (שואדית – ''Shuadit'') ''(extinct)''
****************''[[Vivaro-Alpine]] ([[Alpine Provençal]], Gavòt)'' ([[Vivaroalpenc]] / [[Vivaroaupenc]])
****************''[[Vivaro-Alpine]] (Alpine Provençal, Gavòt)'' ''(Vivaroalpenc / Vivaroaupenc)''
*****************'''[[Gardiol language|Gardiol]]''' (Calabria Provençal)
*****************'''[[Gardiol language|Gardiol]]''' (Calabria Provençal)
****************''[[Auvergnat dialect|Auvergnat]]'' (''Auvernhat'')
****************''[[Auvergnat dialect|Auvergnat]]'' ''(Auvernhat)''
****************''[[Limousin dialect|Limousin]]'' (''Lemosin'')
****************''[[Limousin dialect|Limousin]]'' ''(Lemosin)''
***************''[[Croissant (linguistic)]]
***************''[[Croissant (linguistic)]]''
****************''Croissant Auvergnat''
****************''South Bourbonnais''
****************''Croissant Limousin'' ''([[Marchois (dialect)|Marchois]])''
****************''[[Marchois (dialect)|Marchois]]''
***************''Central Occitan''
***************''Central Occitan''
****************''[[Lengadocian]] (Northern-Central)'' (''[[Lengadocian]]'' / ''Lenga d'Oc'')
****************''[[Lengadocian]]'' ''(Northern Lengadocian) / Lenga d' Oc)''
**************Aquitanian-Pyrenean
**************Aquitanian-Pyrenean
***************Southern Lengadocian
***************'''[[Gascon language|Gascon]]''' (Romance Gascon) ('''''Gasco''''')
***************'''[[Gascon language|Gascon]]''' (Romance Gascon) ('''''Gasco''''')
****************''East Gascon''
****************''East Gascon''
Line 437: Line 881:
******************[[Whistled language of Aas]] (Béarnese dialect-based whistled language)
******************[[Whistled language of Aas]] (Béarnese dialect-based whistled language)
****************''[[Judeo-Gascon]]''
****************''[[Judeo-Gascon]]''
***************Southern Lengadocian
***************[[Old Catalan]] (''Catalanesch'') (extinct)
***************[[Old Catalan]] (''Catalanesch'') (extinct)
****************'''[[Catalan language|Catalan]]''' (Modern Catalan) ([[Catalan–Valencian–Balearic]]) ('''''Català''''' / '''''Llengua Catalana''''')
****************'''[[Catalan language|Catalan]]''' (Modern Catalan) ([[Catalan–Valencian–Balearic]]) ('''''Català''''' / '''''Llengua Catalana''''')
Line 448: Line 891:
******************''[[Northwestern Catalan]]''
******************''[[Northwestern Catalan]]''
******************''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]''
******************''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]''
****************[[Judaeo-Catalan|Catalanic]] ([[Judaeo-Catalan]]) (קטלאנית יהודית – ''Judeocatalà'' / קאטאלנית – ''Catalànic'') (extinct)
****************[[Judaeo-Catalan]] (Catalanic) (קטלאנית יהודית – ''Judeocatalà'' / קאטאלנית – ''Catalànic'') (extinct)
************[[Iberian Romance languages]] / [[Iberian Romance languages|Hispano-Romance]] ([[dialect continuum]])<ref name="Menéndez Pidal 2005">Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. (2005). Historia de la Lengua Española (2 Vols.). Madrid: Fundación Ramón Menendez Pidal. {{ISBN|84-89934-11-8}}</ref>
************[[Iberian Romance languages]] / [[Iberian Romance languages|Hispano-Romance]] ([[dialect continuum]])<ref name="Menéndez Pidal 2005">Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. (2005). Historia de la Lengua Española (2 Vols.). Madrid: Fundación Ramón Menendez Pidal. {{ISBN|84-89934-11-8}}</ref>
*************[[Andalusi Romance]] (extinct) ([[dialect continuum]])<ref name="academia.edu">Marcos Marín, Francisco. (1998). "Romance andalusí y mozárabe: dos términos no sinónimos", Estudios de Lingüística y Filología Españolas. Homenaje a Germán Colón. Madrid: Gredos, 335–341. https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107035335/https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_|date=2022-01-07}}</ref>
*************[[Andalusi Romance]] (extinct) ([[dialect continuum]])<ref name="academia.edu">Marcos Marín, Francisco. (1998). "Romance andalusí y mozárabe: dos términos no sinónimos", Estudios de Lingüística y Filología Españolas. Homenaje a Germán Colón. Madrid: Gredos, 335–341. https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107035335/https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_|date=2022-01-07}}</ref>
**************[[Navarro-Aragonese]] (extinct)
**************[[Navarro-Aragonese]] / Old Aragonese (extinct)
***************'''[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]''' ('''''Aragonés''''' / '''''Luenga Aragonesa''''' / '''''Fabla Aragonesa''''')
***************''[[Old Riojan]]'' (extinct)
****************''[[Eastern Aragonese]]''
***************''[[Navarrese Romance]]'' (extinct)
*****************[[Ribagorçan]]
***************''East Old Aragonese''
******************[[Benasquese dialect|Benasquese]]
****************''Ebro Valley Aragonese'' (extinct)
****************''[[Central Aragonese]]''
****************''Community of Villages Aragonese'' (extinct)
****************''[[Western Aragonese]]''
****************''[[Valencian Aragonese]]'' (extinct)
*****************[[Aisinian Aragonese|Aisinian]]
****************''[[Medieval High Aragonese]] / Pyrenean Aragonese''
*****************[[Ansó Aragonese|Ansó]]
*****************'''[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]''' ('''''Aragonés''''' / '''''Luenga Aragonesa''''' / '''''Fabla Aragonesa''''')
*****************[[Aragüés Aragonese|Aragüés]]
******************''[[Western Aragonese]]''
*****************[[Hecho Aragonese|Hecho]]
*******************''[[Aisinian Aragonese|Aisinian]]''
****************''[[Southern Aragonese]]''
*******************''[[Ansó Aragonese|Ansotano]]''
*****************[[Navalese dialect|Navalese]]
*******************''[[Aragüés Aragonese|Aragüés]]''
****************[[Judaeo-Aragonese]] (''Chodigo-Aragonés'') (extinct)
*******************''[[Hecho Aragonese|Hecho]]''
***************[[Community of Villages Aragonese]] (extinct)
******************''[[Central Aragonese]]''
***************[[Ebro Valley Aragonese]] (extinct)
*******************''Bergotés''
***************[[Navarrese dialect|Navarrese]] (extinct)
*******************''Belsetano''
***************[[Old Riojan]] (extinct)
******************''[[Eastern Aragonese]]''
***************[[Valencian Aragonese]] (extinct)
*******************''[[Ribagorçan]]''
********************''[[Benasquese dialect|Benasquese]]''
******************''[[Southern Aragonese]]''
*******************''[[Navalese dialect|Navalese]]''
****************[[Judaeo-Aragonese]] (''Chodigo-Aragonés'') (''Aragonit Yehudit'' / אראגונית יהודית) (extinct)
*************[[Western Iberian Romance]] / [[Western Iberian Romance|Western Hispano-Romance]] ([[dialect continuum]])
*************[[Western Iberian Romance]] / [[Western Iberian Romance|Western Hispano-Romance]] ([[dialect continuum]])
**************[[Castilian languages|Castilian]] ([[dialect continuum]])
**************[[Castilian languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
***************[[Old Castilian]] (''Romance Castellano'') (extinct)
***************[[Old Castilian]] / Old Spanish / Medieval Spanish (''Romance Castellano'') (extinct)
****************'''[[Spanish language|Spanish]]''' / '''[[Castilian language|Castilian]]''' / [[Standard Spanish]] ('''''Español''''' / '''''Castellano''''' / '''''Lengua Española''''' / '''''Lengua Castellana''''')
****************[[Early Modern Spanish]] / Middle Spanish / Classical Spanish (Golden Age Spanish)
*****************''[[Peninsular Spanish]]'' / ''[[Spanish of Spain]] ([[European Spanish]], [[European Spanish|Spanish of Europe]])''
*****************'''[[Spanish language|Spanish]]''' / '''Castilian''' ('''''Español''''' / '''''Castellano''''' / '''''Lengua Española''''' / '''''Lengua Castellana''''')
******************''[[Castilian Spanish]]''
******************''[[Standard Spanish]]''
*******************[[Standard Spanish]]
******************''[[Peninsular Spanish]]'' / ''Spanish of Spain (European Spanish, Spanish of Europe)''
*******************''[[Castilian Spanish|Northern Castilian]]''
*******************''Northern Spanish''
********************''[[Castrapo|Galician Castilian]] ([[Castrapo]])''
********************''Castilian proper''
********************''[[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers|Catalan Castilian]]''
*********************''Old Castille Castilian''
*********************''[[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers|Catalan Castilian Proper]]''
**********************''Burgalese Castilian / Burgos Castilian''
*********************''[[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers|Balearic Castilian]]''
**********************''Vallisoletano / Valladolid Castilian''
*********************''[[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers|Valencian Castilian]]''
*********************''Northeastern New Castille Castilian''
********************''[[Castilian Spanish|Central Castilian]]''
********************''Cantabrian Castilian / La Montaña Castilian''
*********************''[[Toledano dialect|Toledan Castilian]] ([[Toledano dialect|Toledano]])''
********************''Leonese Spanish''
*********************''[[Murcian Spanish|Murcian]]''
********************''Asturian Spanish''
**********************''Central Murcian ([[Panocho]])''
********************''Galician Spanish ([[Castrapo]])''
*********************''[[Andalusian Spanish|Andalusian]] (Western)''
********************''Riojan Spanish''
**********************''[[Seseo]]''
********************''Navarrese Spanish''
***********************''[[Canarian Spanish|Canarian]]''
********************''Aragonese Spanish''
************************''[[Canarian Americans|Isleño]] ([[Canarian Americans|North American Canarian Spanish]])''
********************''Churro Spanish''
**********************''[[Ceceo]]''
********************''Basque Spanish''
*****************''[[Spanish language in the Americas|American Spanish]]'' / ''[[Spanish language in the Americas|Hispanic American Spanish]] ([[Spanish language in the Americas|Spanish of the Americas]])''
********************''[[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers|Catalan Spanish]]''
******************''[[Caribbean Spanish]]''
*********************''Catalan Spanish Proper''
*******************''[[Cuban Spanish]]''
*********************''Balearic Spanish''
*******************''[[Dominican Spanish]]''
*********************''Valencian Spanish''
*******************''[[Puerto Rican Spanish]]''
*******************''Southern Spanish''
*******************''[[Panamanian Spanish]]''
********************''Southern New Castille Castilian''
*******************''[[Colombian Spanish|Caribbean Coastal Colombian Spanish]]''
*********************''Madridian (Madrileño)''
*******************''[[Venezuelan Spanish|Coastal Venezuelan Spanish]]''
*********************''Manchego''
********************''[[Maracucho Spanish|Zulian Venezuelan Spanish]]'' / ''[[Maracucho Spanish|Maracucho]]''/ ''[[Maracucho Spanish|Marabino Spanish]]''/ ''[[Maracucho Spanish|Maracaibero]]''
**********************''Toledan (Toledano)''
******************''[[Mexican Spanish]]''
********************''[[Murcian Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Sabine River Spanish]]''
*********************''Central Murcian (Panocho)''
******************''[[New Mexican Spanish]]''
********************''[[Andalusian Spanish]] (Eastern)''
******************''[[Central American Spanish]]''
********************''[[Andalusian Spanish]] (Western)''
*******************''[[Guatemalan Spanish]]''
*********************''[[Seseo]]''
*******************''[[Belizean Spanish]]''
*********************''[[Ceceo]]''
*******************''[[Salvadoran Spanish]]''
********************Insular
*******************''[[Honduran Spanish]]''
*********************''[[Canarian Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Nicaraguan Spanish]]''
**********************''Lanzarotan (Lanzaroteño / Conejero)''
*******************''[[Costa Rican Spanish]]''
**********************''Fuerteventuran (Fuerteventureño / Majorero)''
******************''[[Andean Spanish]] / [[Andean Spanish|Andean-Pacific Spanish]]''
**********************''Gran Canarian (Grancanario)''
*******************''[[Colombian Spanish]]''
**********************''Tenerifan (Tinerfeño)''
*******************''[[Ecuadorian Spanish]]''
**********************''Gomeran (Gomero)''
*******************''[[Peruvian Spanish]]''
**********************''Palmeran (Palmero)''
********************''[[Peruvian Ribereño Spanish]]''
**********************''Hierran (Herreño)''
*******************''[[Bolivian Spanish]]''
**********************''Canarian Diaspora''
********************''[[Bolivian Spanish|Andean Bolivian]]''
***********************''[[Isleño Spanish]] (North American Canarian Spanish)''
********************''[[Bolivian Spanish|Valluno]]''
******************''[[Spanish language in the Americas|Hispanic American Spanish]]'' / ''American Spanish'' ''(Spanish of the Americas)''
********************''[[Bolivian Spanish|Vallegrandino]]''
*******************''[[Caribbean Spanish]]''
********************''[[Bolivian Spanish|Camba]]''
********************''[[Cuban Spanish]]''
********************''[[Bolivian Spanish|Chapaco]]''
********************''[[Dominican Spanish]]''
******************''[[Amazonic Spanish]]''
********************''[[Puerto Rican Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Llanero Spanish]]''
********************''[[Panamanian Spanish]]''
******************''[[Southern Cone]] Spanish''
********************''[[Colombian Spanish|Caribbean Coastal Colombian Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Chilean Spanish]]''
********************''[[Venezuelan Spanish|Coastal Venezuelan Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Argentinian Spanish]]''-''[[Uruguayan Spanish]]''
*********************''[[Maracucho Spanish]]'' / ''Zulian Venezuelan Spanish''/ ''Marabino Spanish''/ ''Maracaibero''
********************''[[Cordobés Spanish|Central Argentinian Spanish]]'' / ''[[Cordobés Spanish|Cordovian Argentinian Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Mexican Spanish]]''
********************''[[Cuyo Spanish|Western Argentinian Spanish]]'' / ''[[Cuyo Spanish|Cuyano Argentinian Spanish]]''
********************''Coastal (Costeño)''
********************''[[Rioplatense Spanish]]''
********************''Central''
*********************''[[Uruguayan Spanish]]''
********************''Northern (Norteño)''
*******************''[[Paraguayan Spanish]] (strong [[Guarani language|Guarani]] substrate and influence)''
********************''Yucatan Spanish (Yucateco / Peninsular Oriental)''
*****************''[[Philippine Spanish]]''
********************''[[Sabine River Spanish]]''
*****************''[[Saharan Spanish]]''
*******************''[[New Mexican Spanish]]''
*****************''[[Equatoguinean Spanish]]'' / ''[[Equatoguinean Spanish|Equatorial Guinea Spanish]]''
*******************''[[Central American Spanish]]''
****************'''[[Castúo|Castilian Extremaduran]]''' ([[Castúo|Southern-Central Extremaduran]])/ '''[[Castúo]]'''
********************''Chiapas Spanish (Chiapaneco)''
****************'''[[Ladino language|Ladino]]''' / '''[[Judaeo-Spanish]]''' ('''''לאדינו''''' – '''''Ladino''''' / '''גﬞודﬞיאו־איספאנייול''' – '''''[[Djudeo-Espanyol]]''''' / '''''Judeoespañol''''')
********************''[[Guatemalan Spanish]]''
*****************''[[Haketia]]''
********************''[[Belizean Spanish]]''
**************[[Astur-Leonese]] ('''''Asturllionés''''' / '''''Astur-Llionés''''' / '''''Llengua Astur-Llionesa''''')
********************''[[Salvadoran Spanish]]''
***************[[Eastern Astur-Leonese]]
********************''[[Honduran Spanish]]''
****************'''[[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]]''' (Romance Cantabrian) ('''''Cántabru''''' / '''''Montañés''''')
********************''[[Nicaraguan Spanish]]''
*****************''Western Cantabrian''
********************''[[Costa Rican Spanish]]''
*****************''Central Cantabrian''
*******************''[[Andean Spanish]] / Highland Spanish (Español Andino / Español de las Tierras Altas)''
******************''Pasiego'' (''Pasiegu'')
********************''[[Colombian Spanish]]''
******************''[[Montañés]]''
********************''[[Ecuadorian Spanish]]''
*****************''Eastern Cantabrian''
********************''[[Peruvian Spanish]]''
****************'''Far-Eastern Leonese'''
*********************''[[Peruvian Ribereño Spanish]]''
*****************Bejarano
********************''[[Bolivian Spanish]]''
*****************[[Palra d'El Rebollal]]
*********************''Andean Bolivian''
*****************[[Serrano dialect|Serrano]] / [[Serrano dialect|Habla de la Sierra de Francia]]
*********************''Lower Mountain Range Bolivian (Boliviano de la Sierra)''
*****************[[Riberan dialect|Riberan]] / [[Riberan dialect|Riveran]] / [[Riberan dialect|Arribenian]] / [[Riberan dialect|Riberenian]]
**********************''Valluno''
****************'''[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]''' ('''''Estremeñu''''')
**********************''Vallegrandino''
***************[[Old Leonese language|Old Leonese]] (extinct)
*********************''Bolivian Lowlands (Camba)''
****************'''[[Leonese language|Leonese]]''' ('''''Llionés''''')
*********************''Bolivian Gran Chaco (Chapaco)''
*****************''Alistanu''
********************''Andean Argentinian Spanish / Northwestern Argentinian Spanish''
*****************''Central Western Leonese''
********************''[[Amazonic Spanish]] (Charapa Spanish / Loreto-Ucayali Spanish / Jungle Spanish)''
*****************''Cepedanu''
*********************''[[Llanero Spanish]]''
*****************''Berzian-Cabreirese''
*******************''[[Southern Cone]] Spanish''
*****************''Maragato''
********************''[[Chilean Spanish]]''
*****************''[[Omañese]]''
*********************''Northern''  
*****************''[[Paḷḷuezu dialect|Paḷḷuezu]] / [[Paḷḷuezu dialect|Pachuezu]] / [[Paḷḷuezu dialect|Patsuezo]] / [[Paḷḷuezu dialect|Pachuezo]]''
*********************''Southern''
*****************''[[Riunorese Leonese|Riudeonore-Guadramil-Deilon-Quintanilha Leonese]]''
*********************''[[Chilote Spanish]] (Chiloé Archipelago Spanish)''
*****************''Sanabrian'' / ''Senabrian'' (''Senabrès'')
*********************''Chilean Patagonian''  
*****************''Sayaguese''
********************''[[Argentinian Spanish]]''-''[[Uruguayan Spanish]]''
****************'''[[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]''' ('''''Mirandés''''' / '''''Lhengua Mirandesa''''')
*********************''Central Argentinian Spanish''
*****************''Central Mirandese''
**********************''[[Cordobés Spanish]]''
*****************''Raiano Mirandese''
**********************''Puntano''
*****************''Sendinese Mirandese''
*********************''Western Argentinian Spanish''
****************'''[[Asturian language|Asturian]]''' ('''''Asturianu''''')
**********************''[[Cuyo Spanish]]''
*****************''[[Western Asturian|West Asturian]]''
*********************''[[River Plate Spanish]] (Español Rioplatense)''
*****************''Central Asturian''
**********************''River Plate proper''
*****************''[[East Asturian]]''
***********************''Litoraleño (Fluvial) / River Banks'' ''(Entre Ríos + Santa Fe Provinces)''
***********************''Bonaerense / Porteño'' ''(Buenos Aires City and Province + La Pampa Province)''
***********************''[[Uruguayan Spanish]]''
**********************''Argentinian Patagonian''
********************''[[Paraguayan Spanish]] / Guaranitic Spanish (Español Guaranítico)''
******************''[[Philippine Spanish]]''
******************''[[Saharan Spanish]]''
******************''[[Equatoguinean Spanish]]'' / ''Equatorial Guinea Spanish''
*****************'''[[Castúo|Spanish Extremaduran]]''' (Southern-Central Extremaduran / Low Extremaduran) / '''Castúo'''
*****************'''[[Judaeo-Spanish]]''' / '''Ladino''' ('''''לאדינו''''' – '''''Ladino''''' / '''גﬞודﬞיאו־איספאנייול''' – '''''Djudeo-Espanyol''''' / '''''Judeoespañol''''')
******************''[[Haketia]]''
**************[[Old Leonese language|Old Leonese]] (extinct)
***************[[Astur-Leonese]] ('''''Asturllionés''''' / '''''Astur-Llionés''''' / '''''Llengua Astur-Llionesa''''')
****************[[Eastern Astur-Leonese]] (Cantabrian-Extremaduran)
*****************'''[[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]]''' (Romance Cantabrian) ('''''Cántabru''''' / '''''Montañés''''')
******************''Western Cantabrian''
******************''Central Cantabrian''
*******************''Pasiego'' (''Pasiegu'')
*******************''Montañés''
******************''Eastern Cantabrian''
*****************Old Extremaduran / Old Extremaduran Leonese (extinct)
******************''High Old Extremaduran'' ''(extinct)''
*******************'''[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]''' (Northern Extremaduran) '''''(Estremeñu / Artu Estremeñu)'''''
********************''[[Serrano dialect|Serrano]] / Habla de la Sierra de Francia''
********************''Bejarano (Béjar dialect)''
********************''[[Palra d'El Rebollal]]''
******************''Low Old Extremaduran'' ''(Bahu Estremeñu)'' ''(extinct)''
*******************''Central Old Extremaduran'' ''(extinct)''
*******************''Southern Old Extremaduran'' ''(extinct)''
****************Western Astur-Leonese (Astur-Leonese Proper)
*****************'''[[Asturian language|Asturian]]''' ('''''Asturianu''''') and '''[[Leonese language|Leonese]]''' ('''''Llionés''''') / '''[[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]]''' ''(Asturllionés)'' (the division between Asturian and Leonese is extra-linguistic, dialectal varieties mainly form an east to west division pattern with north to south strips, tilted towards southwest in eastern and central varieties, and not between Asturias and Leon, only after that there is a distinction between asturian and leonese varieties)
******************''[[East Asturian|Eastern Asturian]] / Eastern Asturian-Leonese Proper''
*******************''Asturian''
********************''Llanes dialect''
*******************''Leonese''
********************''[[Riberan dialect|Riberan]] / Riveran / Arribenian / Riberenian''
******************''Central Asturian / Central Asturian-Leonese Proper''
*******************''Asturian''
********************''Gijon (Xixón) dialect''
********************''Oviedo (Uviéu) dialect''
*******************''Leonese''
********************''Leonese (Leon city dialect)'' ''(extinct)''
********************''Sayaguese''
******************''[[Western Asturian]] / Western Asturian-Leonese Proper''
*******************''Eastern Western Asturian-Leonese''
********************''Asturian''
*********************''Pixueto (Cudillero / Cuideiru) dialect''
********************''Leonese''
*********************''[[Omañese]] / Oumañese''
*********************''Cepedanu''
*********************''Maragato''
*********************''Alistanu''
*******************''Western Western Asturian-Leonese''
********************''Asturian''
*********************''Luarca dialect''
********************''Leonese''
*********************''[[Paḷḷuezu dialect|Paḷḷuezu]] / Patsuezo / Pachuezo''
*********************''Berzian-Cabreirese''
*********************''Sanabrian'' / ''Senabrian'' ''(Senabrès)'' ''(Seabra)''
**********************''[[Riunorese Leonese|Riudeonore-Guadramil-Deilon-Quintanilha Leonese]]''
*********************'''[[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]''' ('''''Mirandés''''' / '''''Lhengua Mirandesa''''')
**********************''Central Mirandese''
**********************''Raiano Mirandese''
**********************''Sendinese Mirandese''
**************[[Galician–Portuguese]] (Old Galician–Old Portuguese) (extinct)
**************[[Galician–Portuguese]] (Old Galician–Old Portuguese) (extinct)
***************'''[[Galician language|Galician]]''' ('''''Galego''''' / '''''Lingua Galega''''')
***************'''[[Galician language|Galician]]''' ('''''Galego''''' / '''''Lingua Galega''''')
Line 589: Line 1,099:
***************'''[[Fala language|Fala]]'''
***************'''[[Fala language|Fala]]'''
***************'''[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]''' ('''''Português''''' / '''''Língua Portuguesa''''')
***************'''[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]''' ('''''Português''''' / '''''Língua Portuguesa''''')
****************''[[European Portuguese]]''
****************''[[European Portuguese]]'' / ''Portugal's Portuguese''
*****************''Northern dialects''
*****************''Northern dialects''
******************''Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense-Alto-Beirão''
******************''Lower-Minhoto-Durian - High-Beiran  (Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense - Alto-Beirão)''
*******************''[[Northern Portuguese|Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense (Nortenho)]]'' ''(Coastal Northern)''
*******************''Lower Minhoto-Durian ([[Northern Portuguese|Baixo-Minhoto-Duriense) (Nortenho)]]'' ''(Coastal Northern)''
*******************''Alto-Beirão - Beirão Transmontano'' ''(Northern - Northeastern Beirão / High Beira-Beira Transmontana)''
*******************''High Beiran - Transmontan Beiran (Alto-Beirão - Beirão Transmontano)'' ''(Northern - Northeastern Beiran)''
********************''Alto-Beirão''
********************''High-Beiran (Alto-Beirão)''
********************''Beirão Transmontano''
********************''Transmontan Beiran (Beirão Transmontano)''
******************''Alto Minhoto-Transmontano'' ''(Inland Northern)''
******************''High-Minhoto-Transmontan (Alto Minhoto-Transmontano)'' ''(Inland Northern)''
*******************''Alto-Minhoto''
*******************''High-Minhoto (Alto-Minhoto)''
*******************''Transmontano''
*******************''Transmontan (Transmontano)''
*****************''Central - Southern dialects''
*****************''Central - Southern dialects''
******************''[[Estremenho dialect|Coastal Central (Estremenho)]]''
******************''[[Estremenho dialect|Coastal Central (Estremenho)]]''
*******************''Standard European Portuguese'' / ''Standard Portugal's Portuguese''
*******************''Northern Estremenho''
*******************''Northern Estremenho''
*******************''Southern Estremenho''
*******************''Southern Estremenho''
******************''Inland Central - Southern''
******************''Inland Central - Southern''
*******************''Inland Central'' / ''Interior Central''
*******************''Inland Central'' / ''Interior Central''
********************''Baixo-Beirão - Northern Alto-Alentejan''
********************''Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan''
*********************''Baixo-Beirão'' ''(Southern Beirão / Lower Beira)''
*********************''Northern Lower-Beiran (Baixo-Beirão do Norte)''
*********************''Northern Alto-Alentejan''
*********************''Southern Lower-Beiran - Northern Alto-Alentejan (Baixo-Beirão do Sul - Alto-Alentejano do Norte)''
*******************''Southern dialects''
*******************''Southern dialects''
********************''Ribatejan''
********************''Ribatejan (Ribatejano)''
********************''Southern Coastal Estremenho''
********************''Southern Coastal Estremenho (Estremenho Costeiro do Sul)''
********************''Setúbal Peninsula''
********************''Setúbal Peninsula (Setubalense)''
********************''[[Alentejan Portuguese|Alentejan]]''
********************''[[Alentejan Portuguese|Alentejan]] (Alentejano)''
*********************''[[Oliventine Portuguese|Oliventine]]''
*********************''[[Oliventine Portuguese|Oliventine]] (Oliventino)''
********************''Algarvio''
********************''Algarvian (Algarvio)''
*********************''Leeward Algarvian (Algarvio do Sotavento)'' ''(Eastern Algarvian)''
*********************''Windward Algarvian (Algarvio do Barlavento)'' ''(Western Algarvian)''
*****************''Insular Portuguese''
*****************''Insular Portuguese''
******************''Madeiran'' ''(Madeirense)''
******************''Madeiran'' ''(Madeirense)''
Line 629: Line 1,142:
*******************''Florentino''
*******************''Florentino''
*******************''Corvino''
*******************''Corvino''
****************'''[[Judaeo-Portuguese]]''' (''Judeu-Português'') (extinct)
****************''[[Portuguese language in the Americas|Latin American Portuguese]]''
****************''[[Portuguese language in the Americas|Latin American Portuguese]]''
*****************''[[Brazilian Portuguese|Brazilian]]''
*****************''[[Brazilian Portuguese]]''
******************''Northern dialects''
******************''Northern dialects''
*******************''[[Amazofonia]]'' / ''Nortista''
*******************''[[Amazofonia]]'' / ''Nortista''
Line 651: Line 1,163:
*********************''North Piauí''
*********************''North Piauí''
*********************''North Maranhense''
*********************''North Maranhense''
*******************''Bahian''
*******************''Bahian (Baiano)''
********************''Soteropolitano (Salvador)''
********************''Soteropolitano (Salvador)''
********************''Coastal''
********************''Coastal (Costeiro)''
********************''Catingueiro''
********************''Inland (Interior)''
*********************''Catingueiro''
*********************''Geraizeiro'' / ''Fala dos Gerais'' ''(Fala das Minas dos Matos Gerais)''
******************''Southern dialects''
******************''Southern dialects''
*******************''[[Fluminense dialect|Broad Fluminense]]''
*******************''[[Fluminense dialect|Broad Fluminense]]''
Line 660: Line 1,174:
*********************''Rio de Janeiro (Carioca)''
*********************''Rio de Janeiro (Carioca)''
********************''Espiritosantense (Capixaba)''
********************''Espiritosantense (Capixaba)''
*******************''[[Mineiro]]''
*******************''[[Mineiro]]'' / ''Uplander (Montanhês)''
*******************''[[Caipira dialect|Broad Paulista]] ([[Caipira dialect|Caipira]])''
*******************''Broad Sulista''
********************''[[Paulistano dialect|Paulistano]]''
********************''[[Caipira dialect|Broad Paulista]] ([[Caipira dialect|Caipira]])''
********************''Vale do Paraíba''
*********************''[[Paulistano dialect|Paulistano]]''
********************''Southern Paulista''
**********************''Standard Brazilian Portuguese''
********************''Médio Tietê''
*********************''Vale do Paraíba''
********************''Inland Paulista''
*********************''Southern Paulista''
********************''Mineiro Triangle''
*********************''Médio Tietê''
*******************''Sertanejo''
*********************''Inland Paulista''
********************''Goiás''
*********************''Mineiro Triangle''
********************''Baixada Cuiabana''
*********************''Sertanejo''
********************''Campo Grande''
**********************''Goiás''
********************''Pantanal''
**********************''Baixada Cuiabana''
*******************''Brasiliense''
**********************''Campo Grande''
*******************''Serra Amazônica''
**********************''Pantanal''
*******************''[[Florianopolitan dialect|Florianopolitan]] (Manezês)''
*********************''Brasiliense''
*******************''Sulista''
*********************''Serra Amazônica''
*******************''[[Gaúcho dialect|Gaúcho]]''
********************''[[Florianopolitan dialect|Florianopolitan]] (Manezês)''
********************''Portoalegrense''
********************''Narrow Sulista''
******************''[[Brazilian Portuguese|Standard Brazilian Portuguese]]''
********************''[[Gaúcho dialect|Gaúcho]]''
*****************''[[Uruguayan Portuguese|Uruguayan]]''/''[[Uruguayan Portuguese|Fronteiriço]]''
*********************''Portoalegrense''
*****************''[[Uruguayan Portuguese]]'' / ''Fronteiriço''
****************''[[African Portuguese]]''
****************''[[African Portuguese]]''
*****************''[[Cape Verdean Portuguese|Cape Verdean]]''
*****************''[[Cape Verdean Portuguese|Cape Verdean]]''
*****************''[[Guinean Portuguese|Guinean]]'' / ''[[Guinean Portuguese|Guinea-Bissau Portuguese]]''
*****************''[[Equatoguinean Portuguese|Equatoguinean]]''
*****************''[[Equatoguinean Portuguese|Equatoguinean]]''
*****************''[[Guinean Portuguese|Guinean]]'' / ''[[Guinean Portuguese|Guinea-Bissau Portuguese]]''
*****************''[[Sao Tomean Portuguese|Sao Tomean]]'' / ''São Tomé and Principe Portuguese''
*****************''[[Sao Tomean Portuguese|Sao Tomean]]'' / ''[[Sao Tomean Portuguese|São Tomé and Principe Portuguese]]''
*****************''[[Angolan Portuguese|Angolan]]''
*****************''[[Angolan Portuguese|Angolan]]''
*****************''[[Mozambican Portuguese|Mozambican]]''
*****************''[[Mozambican Portuguese|Mozambican]]''
****************''[[Portuguese language in Asia|Asian Portuguese]]''
****************''[[Portuguese language in Asia|Asian Portuguese]]''
*****************''[[East Timorese Portuguese|East Timorese]]''
*****************''[[Goan Portuguese|Goan]]''
*****************''[[Goan Portuguese|Goan]]''
*****************''[[Macanese Portuguese|Macanese]]''
*****************''[[Macanese Portuguese|Macanese]]''
*****************''[[East Timorese Portuguese|East Timorese]]''
****************'''[[Judaeo-Portuguese]]''' (''Judeu-Português'') (extinct)
****************Mixed Portuguese-Spanish-Asturo-Leonese
****************Mixed Portuguese-Spanish-Asturo-Leonese
*****************'''[[Barranquenho]]'''
*****************'''[[Barranquenho]]'''
Line 697: Line 1,213:
*****************'''[[Minderico language|Minderico]]'''
*****************'''[[Minderico language|Minderico]]'''
**********[[Eastern Romance languages]]
**********[[Eastern Romance languages]]
***********[[Pannonian Romance]] (extinct)
***********[[Proto-Romanian]] / Common Romanian ([[dialect continuum]]) (extinct)
***********[[Daco-Roman]] ([[dialect continuum]])
************South
************[[Proto-Romanian]] / [[Common Romanian]]
*************'''[[Aromanian language|Aromanian]]''' ('''''Rrãmãneshti''''' / '''''Armãneashti''''' / '''''Armãneshce''''' / '''''Limba Rrãmãniascã''''' / '''''Limba Armãneascã''''' / '''''Limba Armãneshce''''')
*************'''[[Aromanian language|Aromanian]]''' ('''''Rrãmãneshti''''' / '''''[[Armãneashti]]''''' / '''''Armãneshce''''' / '''''Limba Rrãmãniascã''''' / '''''Limba Armãneascã''''' / '''''Limba Armãneshce''''')
**************''Northern Aromanian''
**************''Southern Aromanian''
*************'''[[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]]''' ('''''Vlăhește''''')
*************'''[[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]]''' ('''''Vlăhește''''')
*************[[Old Romanian]] ([[Daco-Romanian language|Daco-Romanian]])
************North
**************'''[[Modern Romanian]]''' ('''Limba Română''' / '''Românește''') ([[Romanian dialects]] - Graiuri)
*************'''[[Romanian language|Romanian]]''' ('''Limba Română''' / '''Românește''')
***************Northern Romanian dialects
**************[[Old Romanian]] (Daco-Romanian)
****************''[[Banat Romanian dialect|Banatian]] ([[Banat Romanian dialect|Bănățean]])''
***************[[Modern Romanian]]
****************''[[Crișana dialect|Crișanian]]''
****************''[[Romanian dialects]] (Graiuri)''
****************''[[Maramureș dialect|Maramureșian]]''
*****************''Northern Romanian''
****************''[[Bukovinian Romanian dialect]]''
******************''[[Banat Romanian dialect|Banatian]] ([[Banat Romanian dialect|Bănățean]])''
****************''[[Transylvanian varieties of Romanian]]'' ''(Ardelenesc)''
******************''[[Crișana dialect|Crișanian]]''
****************''[[Moldavian dialect|Moldavian]] ([[Moldavian dialect|Moldovenesc]])''
******************''[[Maramureș dialect|Maramureșian]] (Maramureșean)''
***************Southern Romanian dialects
******************''[[Bukovinian Romanian dialect]]''
****************''[[Wallachian dialect|Muntenian]] (Wallachian)''
******************''[[Transylvanian varieties of Romanian]] (Ardelenesc)''
****************''[[Oltenian dialect|Oltenian]]''
******************''[[Moldavian dialect|Moldavian]] ([[Moldavian dialect|Moldovenesc]])''
**************'''[[Istro-Romanian language|Istro-Romanian]]''' ('''''Rumârește''''' / '''''Vlășește''''')
*****************''Southern Romanian''
******************''[[Oltenian dialect|Oltenian]] (Oltenesc)''
******************''[[Wallachian dialect|Muntenian]] (Muntenesc) (Wallachian)''
*************'''[[Istro-Romanian language|Istro-Romanian]] (Rumârește, Vlășește)'''
*********[[Southern Romance]]
*********[[Southern Romance]]
**********Insular Romance ([[dialect continuum]])
**********Insular Romance ([[dialect continuum]])
***********'''[[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]''' ('''''Sardu''''' or '''''Lingua Sarda''''' / '''''Limba Sarda''''')
***********'''[[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]''' ('''''Sardu''''' or '''''Lingua Sarda''''' / '''''Limba Sarda''''')
************''[[Logudorese dialect|Logudorese-Nuorese]]''
************''Logudorese-Nuorese''
*************''[[Logudorese dialect|Logudurese]]''
*************''[[Logudorese dialect|Logudurese]]''
*************''[[Nuorese dialect|Nuorese]]''
*************''Nuorese''
************''[[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]]''
************''[[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]]''
*************''[[Cagliaritano]] (Casteddaiu)''
*************''Cagliaritano (Casteddaiu)''
**********[[African Romance]] (extinct)
**********[[African Romance]] (extinct)
***Unknown Italic (extinct)
****[[Oenotrians#Language|Oenotrian]]
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}


Line 762: Line 1,280:
*********''Cornouaillais'' ''(Kerneveg)''
*********''Cornouaillais'' ''(Kerneveg)''
*********''Vannetais'' ''(Gwenedeg)''
*********''Vannetais'' ''(Gwenedeg)''
**********''[[:fr:Breton de Batz-sur-Mer|Batz-sur-Mer]]'' ''(extinct)''
**********''[[Batz-sur-Mer Breton|Batz-sur-Mer]]'' ''(extinct)''
*****[[Western Brittonic languages|Western Brittonic]] ([[Dialect continuum]])
*****[[Western Brittonic languages|Western Brittonic]] ([[Dialect continuum]])
******[[Old Welsh]] (extinct)
******[[Old Welsh]] (extinct)
Line 803: Line 1,321:
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}


==[[Hellenic languages]]==
==[[List of Germanic languages|Germanic languages]]==
[[File:Modern Greek dialects en.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The distribution of '''major modern Greek dialect areas'''.]]
[[File:Anatolian Greek dialects.png|thumb|'''Anatolian Greek until 1923'''. '''Demotic''' in yellow. '''Pontic''' in orange. '''Cappadocian''' in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian-Greek-speaking villages in 1910.<ref>Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>]]
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] (extinct)
**[[Mycenaean language|Mycenaean Greek]] (extinct)
***[[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] ([[Classical Greek]]) (Ἑλληνική – ''Hellēnikḗ'' / Ἑλληνική γλῶσσα – ''Hellēnikḗ glōssa'') (includes [[Homeric Greek]]) (extinct) ([[Dialect continuum]])
****''[[Aeolic Greek]] (extinct)''
****''[[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]] (extinct)''
*****''[[Pamphylian Greek]]'' (in [[Pamphylia]]) ''(extinct)''
****''[[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] (extinct)''
*****''[[Attic Greek|Attic]] (extinct)''
******[[Koine Greek]] (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος – hē koinḕ diálektos / Kοινὴ – Koinḕ)
*******[[New Testament|Biblical Greek]] (Biblical Forms of Koine Greek)
********[[New Testament|New Testament Greek]] (Greek of New Testament)
********[[Septuagint|Septuagint Greek]] (Greek of Septuagint (Old Testament))
*********[[Jewish Koine Greek]] (Greek of [[Byzantine Jews]])
*******[[Medieval Greek]] ([[Byzantine Greek]] / [[Constantinopolitan Greek]])
********'''[[Greek language|Greek]]''' ([[Modern Greek]]) ('''ελληνικά''' – '''''Elliniká''''') ([[Dialect continuum]])
*********''[[Katharevousa]]'' (''Καθαρεύουσα'' – ''Katharevousa'')
*********''[[Demotic Greek|Demotic]]'' (''Δημοτική γλώσσα'' – ''Dimotikí glṓssa'')
**********''[[Varieties of Modern Greek|Southern dialects]]''
***********''[[Mani Greek Dialect|Maniot]] (in [[Mani Peninsula]]) (archaic dialect)''
***********''[[Himariote dialect|Himariote]]''
***********''[[Cretan Greek|Cretan]]''
***********''[[Cypriot Greek|Cypriot]]''
**********''[[Varieties of Modern Greek|Central Greek ("Semi-Northern")]] (Transitional Southern-Northern Greek)''
**********''[[Varieties of Modern Greek|Northern dialects]]''
***********''[[Istanbul Greek dialect|Constantinopolitan Greek]]''
********''[[Greek in Australia|Greco-Australian]]''
********'''[[Silliot Greek|Silliot]]'''
********'''[[Pharasiot Greek|Pharasiot]]'''
********'''[[Pontic Greek language|Pontic Greek]]''' ('''ποντιακά''' – '''''Pontiaká''''')
*********''[[Mariupolitan Greek]] (Rumeíka)''
********[[Cappadocian Greek]]
********Italiot Greek
*********'''[[Griko dialect|Griko]]''' / '''[[Griko dialect|Salentinian Greek]]''' (Γκρίκο – '''''Gríko''''') ''(''
*********'''[[Calabrian Greek]]''' (Γκραίκο – '''''Graíko''''')
********'''[[Yevanic language|Yevanic]]''' ([[Judæo-Greek]] / [[Romaniote language|Romaniote]]) (probably extinct)
****''[[Doric Greek|Doric]] (extinct)''
*****''[[Doric Greek|Northwest Doric]]'' / ''[[Northwest Greek]] (extinct)''
******''[[Locrian Greek]] (in [[Locris]]) (extinct)''
*****''[[Achaean Doric Greek|Achaean Doric]] (in [[Achaea (ancient region)|Achaea]]) (North Coast of [[Peloponnese]]) (extinct)''
*****'''[[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]]''' ('''Tσακώνικα''' – '''''Tsakṓnika''''' / '''A Tσακώνικα γρούσσα''' – '''''A Tsakṓnika gloússa''''')
****[[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Ancient Macedonian|url=http://multitree.org/codes/xmk|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131122022719/http://multitree.org/codes/xmk|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 22, 2013|website=MultiTree: A Digital Library of Language Relationships|access-date=28 March 2016}}</ref>  (extinct)
{{tree list/end}}
 
==[[Armenian language]]==
[[File:Armenian dialects, Adjarian 1909.png|thumb|'''Armenian dialects''', according to Adjarian (1909) (before 1st World War and Armenian Genocide). In many regions of the contiguous area shown in the map, Armenian speakers were the majority or a significant minority.]]
[[File:MAPArmenian.png|thumb|Modern geographical distribution of the '''Armenian language'''.]]
{{tree list}}
*[[Proto-Armenian language|Proto-Armenian]] (extinct)
**[[Classical Armenian]] ([[Old Armenian]]) (գրաբար հայերէն – ''Krapar Hayeren'' / ''Grabar Hayeren'' գրաբար – ''Krapar'' / ''Grabar'') ([[Classical language]], [[High culture]] language, official language of the [[Armenian Kingdom]], [[Liturgical language|liturgical]] or [[sacred language]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] and the [[Armenian Catholic Church]])
***''[[Classical Armenian|Liturgical Armenian]]''
***[[Middle Armenian]]
****[[List of Jewish diaspora languages|Judeo-Armenian]]
****'''[[Armenian language|Armenian]]''' ([[Modern Armenian]]) ('''հայերէն''' or '''հայերեն''' – '''''[[Hayeren]]''''') ([[dialect continuum]])
*****'''[[Western Armenian]]''' ('''արեւմտահայերէն''' – '''''Arevmdahayerēn''''') ([[dialect continuum]])
******''[[Akn dialect|Akn]]''
******''[[Homshetsi dialect|Homshetsi]]''
******''[[Karin dialect|Karin]]'' / ''[[Karin dialect|Upper Armenia]] (Bardzr Hayk')''
******''[[Kharberd–Yerznka dialect|Kharberd-Yerznka]]'' ''(Tsopk') (nearly extinct)''
******''[[Malatia dialect|Malatia]] (extinct)''
******''[[Mush dialect|Mush]]''
******''[[Nor-Nakhichevan dialect|Nor-Nakhichevan]]''
******''[[Shabin–Karahisar dialect|Shabin–Karahisar]]''
*****'''[[Eastern Armenian]]''' ('''արևելահայերեն''' – '''''Arevelahayeren''''') ([[dialect continuum]])
******''[[Karabakh dialect|Artsakh]]''
******''[[Kakavaberd dialect|Kakavaberd]]''
******''[[Iranian Armenians#Iranian Armenian dialect|Nor Julfa]]''
******''[[Yerevan dialect|Yerevan]]''
******''[[Zok language|Zok]]''
{{tree list/end}}


==[[List of Germanic languages|Germanic languages]]==
[[File:Germanic dialects ca. AD 1.png|thumb|One proposed theory for approximate distribution of the primary '''[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]''' dialect groups in Europe around the year 1&nbsp;AD.
'''[[East Germanic]]'''
{{legend|Green|[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]}}
'''[[Northwest Germanic]]'''
'''[[West Germanic]]'''
{{legend|Yellow|[[Elbe Germanic]]}}
{{legend|Orange|[[Weser–Rhine Germanic]]}}
{{legend|Red|[[North Sea Germanic]]}}
'''[[North Germanic]]'''
{{legend|Blue|[[North Germanic]]}}]]
[[File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|'''Germanic languages and main dialect groups in Europe after 1945'''.]]
[[File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|'''Germanic languages and main dialect groups in Europe after 1945'''.]]
[[File:Germanic languages.svg|thumb|'''Germanic languages in the World'''. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Germanic languages are spoken. Dark Red: First language; Red: Official or Co-Official language, Pink: Spoken by a significant minority as second language.]]
[[File:Germanic languages.svg|thumb|'''Germanic languages in the World'''. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Germanic languages are spoken. Dark Red: First language; Red: Official or Co-Official language, Pink: Spoken by a significant minority as second language.]]
Line 894: Line 1,329:
**[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] / Oder-Vistula Germanic (extinct)
**[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] / Oder-Vistula Germanic (extinct)
***[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref name="auto8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gothic-language|title=Gothic language &#124; Origins, History & Vocabulary &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|date=25 September 2023|access-date=18 August 2023|archive-date=21 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221004425/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gothic-language|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-Germanic-languages|title=East Germanic languages &#124; History, Characteristics & Dialects &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=2023-08-18|archive-date=2023-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818123044/https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-Germanic-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>
***[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref name="auto8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gothic-language|title=Gothic language &#124; Origins, History & Vocabulary &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|date=25 September 2023|access-date=18 August 2023|archive-date=21 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221004425/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gothic-language|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-Germanic-languages|title=East Germanic languages &#124; History, Characteristics & Dialects &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=2023-08-18|archive-date=2023-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818123044/https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-Germanic-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>
****[[Crimean Gothic]]<ref name="auto8"/>
****[[Crimean Gothic]]<ref name="auto8"/><ref name="auto4">"The medieval 'New England': A forgotten Anglo-Saxon colony on the north-eastern Black Sea coast" https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818130603/https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html |date=2023-08-18 }}</ref>
****[[Ostrogoths#Gothic language|Ostrogoth]]
****[[Ostrogoths#Gothic language|Ostrogoth]]
****[[Visigoths#Language|Visigoth]]
****[[Visigoths#Language|Visigoth]]
Line 904: Line 1,339:
**[[Northwest Germanic]]
**[[Northwest Germanic]]
***[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
***[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
****[[Elbe Germanic]]
****[[Elbe Germanic]] / Irminonic / Herminonic
*****[[Lombardic language|Langobardic / Lombardic]] (extinct)
*****[[Lombardic language|Langobardic / Lombardic]] (extinct)
*****[[Suebi#Language|Suebian]] (extinct) <ref>Harm, Volker, ''"Elbgermanisch", "Weser-Rhein-Germanisch" und die Grundlagen des Althochdeutschen'', in Nielsen; Stiles (eds.), Unity and Diversity in West Germanic and the Emergence of English, German, Frisian and Dutch, North-Western European Language Evolution, vol. 66, pp. 79–99</ref>
*****[[Suebi#Language|Suebian]] (extinct) <ref>Harm, Volker, ''"Elbgermanisch", "Weser-Rhein-Germanisch" und die Grundlagen des Althochdeutschen'', in Nielsen; Stiles (eds.), Unity and Diversity in West Germanic and the Emergence of English, German, Frisian and Dutch, North-Western European Language Evolution, vol. 66, pp. 79–99</ref>
Line 915: Line 1,350:
************[[East Central German]]<ref>C. A. M. Noble: ''Modern German Dialects.'' Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131</ref>
************[[East Central German]]<ref>C. A. M. Noble: ''Modern German Dialects.'' Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131</ref>
*************[[Old Thuringian dialect|Old Thuringian]] (extinct)
*************[[Old Thuringian dialect|Old Thuringian]] (extinct)
**************'''[[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]]'''
**************Thuringian-Upper Saxon
***************''[[Central Thuringian]]''
***************'''[[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]]'''
**************Schlesisch–Wilmesau
****************''[[Central Thuringian]]''
***************'''[[Silesian German]]'''
*****************''West Thuringian''
***************'''[[Wymysorys language|Wymysorys]]'''
*****************''East Thuringian''
***************'''[[Alzenau dialect|Alzenau]]'''
****************''North Thuringian''
*************'''[[Upper Saxon German|Upper Saxon]]'''
***************'''[[Upper Saxon German|Upper Saxon]]'''
**************''[[Erzgebirgisch]]''
****************''Easterlandic''
*************''[[East Central German#Nordobersächsisch-Südmärkisch|North Upper Saxon-South Marchian]]''
****************''Meißen dialect''
**************''[[Berlinerisch]]''
****************''[[Erzgebirgisch]]''
****************''Northwestern Bohemian''
****************''[[East Central German#Nordobersächsisch-Südmärkisch|North Upper Saxon-South Marchian]]''
**************'''[[Lusatian dialects|Lusatian]]'''
**************'''[[Lusatian dialects|Lusatian]]'''
***************''[[Low Lusatian German]]''
***************''[[Low Lusatian German]]''
*************'''[[High Prussian dialect|High Prussian]]'''
**************Silesian–Vilamovian
***********'''''[[Standard German]]'''''
***************'''[[Silesian German]]''' '''(Schlesisch)'''
************''[[Prague German]]'' (extinct)
****************''West Silesian''
****************''Lowland Silesian''
****************''Middle / Central Silesian''
****************''Mountain Silesian''
****************''South-East Silesian''
***************Vilamovian-Haltsnovian (Bielsko-Biała language island)
****************'''[[Wymysorys language|Wymysorys / Vilamovian]]''' '''(Wilmesaurisch)'''
****************'''[[Alzenau dialect|Haltsnovian / Altsnerisch]]'''
**************'''[[High Prussian dialect|High Prussian]]'''
***************''Oberländisch''
****************''Rosenbergisch''
***************''Breslau(i)sch / Ermländisch''
***********'''[[Standard German|Standard German / Standard High German]]'''
************''[[German Standard German]]''
************''[[German Standard German]]''
************''[[Austrian Standard German]]''
************''[[Austrian Standard German]]''
*************''[[Prague German]]'' (extinct)
************''[[Swiss Standard German]]''
************''[[Swiss Standard German]]''
*************''[[Liechtenstein German|Liechtenstein variety]]''
*************''[[Liechtenstein German|Liechtenstein variety]]''
Line 937: Line 1,387:
***********[[Upper German]]
***********[[Upper German]]
************'''[[East Franconian]]'''
************'''[[East Franconian]]'''
*************''[[Hohenlohisch dialect|Hohenlohisch]]''
*************''Lower East Franconian''
**************''[[Itzgründisch dialect|Itzgründisch]]''
*************''Upper East Franconian''
**************''[[Vogtlandian|Vogtländisch]]''
**************''[[Vogtlandian]]''
************'''[[South Franconian]]''' ('''''Südfränkisch''''')
*************''South East Franconian''
************'''[[Swabian German|Swabian]]-[[Alemannic German|Alemannic]]'''
************'''[[South Franconian]]''' / '''South Rhine Franconian''' ('''''Südfränkisch''''')
*************''Low Neckar''
*************''Enzian''
************Swabian-Alemannic
*************'''[[Swabian German|Swabian]]'''
*************'''[[Swabian German|Swabian]]'''
**************''East Swabian''
**************''West Swabian''
***************''Low Swabian''
***************''Upper Swabian''
*************'''[[Alemannic German|Alemannic]]'''
*************'''[[Alemannic German|Alemannic]]'''
**************''[[Low Alemannic German]]''
**************''[[Low Alemannic German]] / Upper Rhine Alemannic''
***************''[[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]]''
***************''[[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]]''
****************''[[Colonia Tovar dialect|Colonia Tovar German]]''
****************''Alsatian diaspora''
*****************''[[Colonia Tovar dialect|Colonia Tovar German]]''
***************''North Breisgau''
***************''[[Basel German]]''
***************''[[Basel German]]''
**************''Lake Constance Alemannic (Bodenseealemannisch)''
**************''[[High Alemannic German]]''
**************''[[High Alemannic German]]''
***************''[[Vorarlbergisch]]''
***************''[[Vorarlbergisch]]''
***************''Liechtensteinisch''
***************''Eastern''
****************''[[Zürich German]]''
****************''[[Zürich German]]''
***************''Western''
****************''[[Bernese German]]''
****************''[[Bernese German]]''
**************'''[[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]]'''
**************'''[[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]]'''
***************''[[Walliser German]]''
***************''[[Walliser German]]''
***************''[[Walser]]''
***************''[[Walser]]''
************'''[[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]''' / '''[[Austro-Bavarian]]'''
************'''[[Bavarian language|Bavarian / Austro-Bavarian]]'''
*************''[[Northern Bavarian]]'' / ''North Bavarian''
*************''[[Northern Bavarian]]'' ''(Upper Palatine / Bavarian Nordgau)''
*************''[[Central Bavarian]]''
*************''[[Central Bavarian]]''
**************''[[Viennese German]]''
**************''[[Viennese German]]''
***************''[[Styrian dialect group|Styrian]]''
*************''[[Southern Bavarian]]''
*************''[[Southern Bavarian]]''
**************''[[Hutterite German|Old Hutterite German]] (extinct)''
**************''Tirolese''
**************''[[Carinthian]]''
***************''Old Hutterite German (extinct)''
***************''[[Gottscheerish]]''
**************''[[Carinthian]] / German Carinthian''
****************'''[[Hutterite German]]'''
***************''German Carinthian diaspora''
**************'''[[Mòcheno language|Mòcheno]]'''
****************''[[Gottscheerish]]''
**************'''[[Cimbrian language|Cimbrian]]'''
****************''[[Hutterite German]]''
****[[Weser–Rhine Germanic]]
**************''[[Mòcheno language|Mòcheno]] (Bersntoler sproch)''
**************''[[Cimbrian language|Cimbrian]] (Tzimbar)''
****[[Weser–Rhine Germanic]] / Istvaeonic
*****[[West Central German]]
*****[[West Central German]]
******[[Rhine Franconian dialects|Rhine Franconian / Rhenish Franconian]]
******[[Rhine Franconian dialects|Rhine Franconian / Rhenish Franconian]]
*******'''[[Hessian dialects|Hessian]]'''
*******'''[[Hessian dialects|Hessian]]'''
********''North Hessian''
********''[[Central Hessian]]''
********''[[Central Hessian]]''
********''East Hessian''
********''South Hessian''
*******Pfälzisch–Lothringisch
*******Pfälzisch–Lothringisch
********'''[[Lorraine Franconian]]'''
********'''[[Palatine German dialects|Palatine German]]''' (Lower Palatine)
********'''[[Palatine German dialects|Palatine German]]'''
*********''Palatine diaspora''
*********''[[Bukovina Germans|Bukovina]]'' (extinct)
**********''[[Bukovina Germans|Bukovina]]'' (extinct)
*********''[[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]''
**********''[[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch / Pennsylvania German]]''
********''[[Lorraine Franconian]]''
*******''Hessian-Palatine Koiné (Hessian-Palatine diaspora)''
********''[[Volga German dialects|Volga German]]''
******[[Central Franconian languages|Central Franconian / Middle Franconian]]
******[[Central Franconian languages|Central Franconian / Middle Franconian]]
*******[[Moselle Franconian language|Moselle Franconian]]
*******'''[[Moselle Franconian language|Moselle Franconian]]'''
********'''[[Banat Swabian dialect|Banat Swabian]]'''
********''East Moselle Franconian''
********'''[[Eifel dialects|Eifel]]'''
*********''[[Siegerländisch]]''
********'''[[Hunsrückisch]]'''
*********''Untermosellanisch''
*********''[[Hunsrik]]''
*********''Trierisch''
*********''[[Hunsrückisch]]''
********''West Moselle Franconian''
*********''West-Westerwäldisch''
*********''[[Eifel dialects|Southern Eifel]]''
*********'''[[Luxembourgish]]'''
********''Moselle Franconian diaspora''
*********''[[Zipser German|Zipser-Gründlerisch]]''
**********''Gründlerisch (Lower Zipser)''
**********''Upper Zipser''
*********''[[Transylvanian Saxon dialect|Transylvanian Saxon]]''
*********''[[Transylvanian Saxon dialect|Transylvanian Saxon]]''
********'''[[Luxembourgish]]'''
*******'''[[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian / Ripuarian Franconian]]'''
********'''[[Siegerländisch]]'''
********[[Zipser German|Zipser-Gründlerisch]]
*********'''[[Zipser German]]'''
*******'''[[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian, Ripuarian Franconian]]'''
********''[[Bönnsch dialect|Bönnsch]]''
********''[[Bönnsch dialect|Bönnsch]]''
********''[[Historic Colognian]]'' (extinct)
********''[[Old Colognian]]'' (extinct)
*********''[[Colognian dialect|Colognian]]''
*********''[[Colognian dialect|Colognian]]''
********''[[Kerkrade dialect|Kerkrade]]''
********''[[Kerkrade dialect|Kerkrade]]''
********''[[Öcher Platt]]''
********''[[Öcher Platt]]''
*****'''[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]'''
********''[[Eifel dialects|Northern Eifel]]''
******'''[[Western Yiddish]]'''
******'''[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] / Jewish German / Judeo-German'''  
*******''[[Judeo-Alsatian]]''
*******'''[[Western Yiddish]]'''
******'''[[Eastern Yiddish]]'''
********''Midwestern''
*******''[[Klezmer-loshn]]'' (extinct)
********''Southwestern''
*******''[[Udmurtish]]''
*********''[[Judeo-Alsatian]]''
****[[Low Franconian languages]]
********''Northwestern''
*****[[Old Low Franconian]]
*******''Transitional Yiddish dialects''
******'''[[Limburgish language|Limburgish]]'''
********''Western (Bohemia, Moravia, west Slovakia, and west Hungary Yiddish)''
*******''[[Central Limburgish]]''
********''Eastern (Hungarian lowlands, Transylvania, and Carpathian Rus Yiddish)''
*******''[[East Limburgish]]''
*******'''[[Eastern Yiddish]]'''
********''[[Sittard dialect|Sittard]]''
********''Middle / Central Yiddish (Poylish or "Polish" Yiddish)''
*******''East Limburgish - Ripuarian transitional area''
********''Southeastern Yiddish (Ukrainish or "Ukrainian" Yiddish)''
********''[[Eupen dialect|Eupen]]''
********''Northern / Northeastern Yiddish (Litvish or "Lithuanian" Yiddish)''
*******''[[West Limburgish]]''
********''[[Udmurtish]]''
******[[West Low Franconian|West Low Franconian / North Low Franconian]]
*********''Southern''
*******[[Middle Dutch]]
*********''Central''
********'''[[Dutch language|Dutch]]'''
********''[[Klezmer-loshn]]'' (extinct)
*********'''[[Bildts]]'''
*****[[Low Franconian languages]]
*********''[[Central Dutch dialects|Central Dutch]]''
******[[Old Low Franconian]]
**********''[[Hollandic Dutch|Hollandic]]''<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', "Holland, n. 1," etymology.</ref>
*******[[Meuse-Rhenish]]
***********''[[Hollandic Dutch#List of subdialects|South Hollandic]]''
********''[[Bergish dialects|Bergish]]''
************''[[Scheveningen dialect|Scheveningen]]''
********'''[[Limburgish language|Limburgish]]'''
************''[[The Hague dialect|The Hague]]''
*********''East Limburgish - Ripuarian transitional area''
**********''[[Eupen dialect|Eupen]]''
*********''[[East Limburgish]]''
**********''[[Sittard dialect|Sittard]]''
*********''[[Central Limburgish]]''
*********''[[West Limburgish]]''
*******[[West Low Franconian|West Low Franconian / North Low Franconian]]
********[[Middle Dutch]]
*********'''[[Dutch language|Dutch]]'''
**********''[[Kleverlandish]]''
**********''[[Central Dutch dialects|Central Dutch]]''
***********''[[Hollandic Dutch|Hollandic]]''<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', "Holland, n. 1," etymology.</ref>
************''Utrechts-Alblasserwaards''
************''[[Hollandic Dutch#List of subdialects|South Hollandic]]''
*************''[[The Hague dialect|The Hague]]''
**************''[[Scheveningen dialect|Scheveningen]]''
*************'''[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]'''  
*************'''[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]'''  
**************''[[Kaaps]]''<ref>Hendricks, Frank . "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".[https://multimargins.ac.za/index.php/mm/article/view/38] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023151542/https://multimargins.ac.za/index.php/mm/article/view/38|date=2022-10-23}} ''Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery''. '''3''' (2): 6–39. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38. [[ISSN]] 2221-4216. [[S2CID]] 197552885.</ref>
**************''Eastern Cape''
***************''Orange River''
**************''Namibian Afrikaans''
**************''[[Patagonian Afrikaans]]''
**************''[[Patagonian Afrikaans]]''
**************''[[Kaaps]]''<ref>Hendricks, Frank . "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".[https://multimargins.ac.za/index.php/mm/article/view/38] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023151542/https://multimargins.ac.za/index.php/mm/article/view/38|date=2022-10-23}} ''Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery''. '''3''' (2): 6–39. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38. [[ISSN]] 2221-4216. [[S2CID]] 197552885.</ref>
************''Amsterdams''
***********''[[Stadsfries Dutch|Stadsfries]]''
************''[[Zaans]]''
************''[[West Frisian Dutch]]''
************''[[Amelands]]''
************''[[Amelands]]''
***********''[[West Frisian Dutch|West Frisian]]''
************''[[Bildts]]''
***********''[[Zaans]]''
************''[[Stadsfries Dutch|Stadsfries]]''
**********''[[Dutch language in Indonesia|Indonesian Dutch]]''
***********''[[Surinamese Dutch]]''
**********''[[South Guelderish]]''
***********''[[Dutch language in Indonesia|Indonesian Dutch]]''
**********''[[Surinamese Dutch]]''
**********''[[Brabantian Dutch|Brabantian]]''
*********''[[Flemish dialects|Flemish]]''
**********'''[[Brabantian Dutch|Brabantian]]'''
***********''[[East Brabantian]]''
***********''[[East Brabantian]]''
***********''[[Pella Dutch]]''
***********''[[Brabantian Dutch|South Brabantian]]''
***********''[[Brabantian Dutch|South Brabantian]]''
************''[[Brusselian dialect|Brusselian]]''
************''[[Brusselian dialect|Brusselian]]''
*************''[[Syldavian]]''
************''[[Getelands]]''
************''[[Getelands]]''
***********''[[Brabantian Dutch|West Brabantian]]''
***********''[[Brabantian Dutch|West Brabantian]]''
************''[[Antwerpian dialect|Antwerpian]]''
************''[[Antwerpian dialect|Antwerpian]]''
**********'''[[East Flemish]]'''<ref name="Woordenboek">Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal: [https://gtb.ivdnt.org/search/ ''De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank'']:<br/>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, entry [https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M080691&lemma=vlaming ''Vlaming<sup>I</sup>''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005153847/https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M080691&lemma=vlaming |date=2023-10-05 }};<br/>cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek, entry ''[https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=ONW&id=ID3676&lemma=fl%C4%81mink flāmink] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005153846/https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=ONW&id=ID3676&lemma=fl%C4%81mink |date=2023-10-05 }}'': "Morfologie: ''afleiding, basiswoord :'' flāma ‘overstroomd gebied’; ''suffix:'' ink ‘vormt afstammingsnamen’"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek, entry [https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=VMNW&id=ID6036&lemma=vlaendren ''Vlaendren''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005153845/https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=VMNW&id=ID6036&lemma=vlaendren |date=2023-10-05 }}: "Etymologie: ''Dat.pl. van'' flandr- ''<nowiki/>'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix'' -dr-.".<br/>Cognate to Middle English ''flēm'' 'current of a stream': [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED16260 Middle English Compendium  → Middle English Dictionary : ''flēm n.(2)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209203632/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED16260 |date=2023-12-09 }}</ref>
***********''Brabantian diaspora''
**********'''[[West Flemish]]'''
************''[[Pella Dutch]] / Iowa Dutch''
***********''[[Bruges dialect|Bruges]]''
**********''[[Flemish dialects|Flemish]]''
***********''[[French Flemish]]''
***********''[[East Flemish]]''<ref name="Woordenboek">Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal: [https://gtb.ivdnt.org/search/ ''De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank'']:<br/>Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, entry [https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M080691&lemma=vlaming ''Vlaming<sup>I</sup>''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005153847/https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M080691&lemma=vlaming |date=2023-10-05 }};<br/>cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek, entry ''[https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=ONW&id=ID3676&lemma=fl%C4%81mink flāmink] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005153846/https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=ONW&id=ID3676&lemma=fl%C4%81mink |date=2023-10-05 }}'': "Morfologie: ''afleiding, basiswoord :'' flāma 'overstroomd gebied'; ''suffix:'' ink 'vormt afstammingsnamen'"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek, entry [https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=VMNW&id=ID6036&lemma=vlaendren ''Vlaendren''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005153845/https://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=VMNW&id=ID6036&lemma=vlaendren |date=2023-10-05 }}: "Etymologie: ''Dat.pl. van'' flandr- ''<nowiki/>'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix'' -dr-.".<br/>Cognate to Middle English ''flēm'' 'current of a stream': [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED16260 Middle English Compendium  → Middle English Dictionary : ''flēm n.(2)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209203632/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED16260 |date=2023-12-09 }}</ref>
***********''[[Zeelandic]]''
***********West Flemish-Zeelandic
************''[[Jersey Dutch language|Jersey Dutch]]''
************''[[West Flemish]]''
*********'''[[Kleverlandish]]'''
*************''[[Bruges dialect|Bruges]]''
****[[North Sea Germanic]]  
*************''[[French Flemish]]''
************''[[Zeelandic]]''
*************''[[Jersey Dutch language|Jersey Dutch]]''
****[[North Sea Germanic]] / Ingvaeonic
*****[[Old Low German]]
*****[[Old Low German]]
******[[Middle Low German]]
******[[Middle Low German]]
*******[[Low German]]
*******'''[[Low German]] / Low Saxon'''
********'''[[Missingsch]]'''
********[[Northern Low German]]  
********[[Low Saxon]]
*********[[Northern Low Saxon]]  
*********[[Dutch Low Saxon]]
**********''Schleswigsch''
**********''[[Veluws dialect|Veluws]]''
**********''Holsteinisch''
***********''[[Oost-Veluws dialect|Oost-Veluws]]''
**********''Dithmarsisch''
***********''[[West-Veluws dialect|West-Veluws]]''
**********''[[Hamburgisch dialect|Hamburgisch]]''<ref>Christoph, Walther; Lasch, Agathe; Kuhn, Hans; Pretzel, Ulrich; Scheel, Käthe; Meier, Jürgen; Möhn, Dieter (1985–2006), Hamburgisches Wörterbuch (2 ed.), Neumünster: K. Wachholtz, OCLC 182559541</ref>
*********[[Northern Low Saxon]]
***********''Traditional Hamburgisch''
**********'''[[East Frisian Low Saxon]]'''
************''Finkwarder Platt''
**********'''[[Gronings dialect|Gronings]]'''
************''Olwarder Platt''
**********'''[[Hamburg German|Hamburg]]'''
************''Veerlanner Platt''
**********'''[[Northern Low Saxon|Holsteinisch]]'''
************''Barmbeker Platt''
**********'''[[Northern Low Saxon|Oldenburgisch]]'''
**********''Elb-Weserländisch''
**********''North Hannoverian''
**********''Oldenburgisch''
***********''[[Bremian dialect|Bremian]]''
***********''[[Bremian dialect|Bremian]]''
**********'''[[Northern Low Saxon|Schleswigsch]]'''
**********''[[Friso-Saxon dialects|Friso-Saxon]] / Frisian Low Saxon''
*********[[Southern Low German]]
***********''[[East Frisian Low Saxon]]''
**********'''[[Eastphalian language|Eastphalian]]'''
***********''[[Gronings dialect|Gronings]]''
**********'''[[Westphalian language|Westphalian]]'''
***********''Westkwartiers''
***********''[[Achterhooks]]''
***********''[[Drèents dialects|Drèents]]''
***********''[[East Westphalian]]''
***********''[[Sallaans dialect|Sallaans]]''
***********''[[Stellingwarfs dialect|Stellingwarfs]]''
***********''[[Stellingwarfs dialect|Stellingwarfs]]''
***********''[[Tweants dialect|Tweants]]''
*********''[[Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect|Mecklenburgian-West Pomeranian]]''
***********''[[Urkers dialect|Urkers]]''
**********''Mecklenburgian''
********[[East Low German]]
**********''Wendlandian''
*********'''[[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]]''' (not to be confused with [[Pomeranian language|Slavic Pommeranian]], the [[Pomeranians (Slavic tribe)|Slavic Pomeranians]] language)
**********''Strelitzisch''
*********[[Northern Low German]]
**********''West Pomeranian / Fore Pomerania''
**********'''[[Low Prussian dialect|Low Prussian]]'''
*********''[[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]] / Farther Pomeranian'' ''(not to be confused with [[Pomeranian language|Slavic Pommeranian]])''
***********''[[Eastern Low Prussian]]''
**********''Coastal''
***********''West Coastal''
***********''East Costal''
***********''Bublitzer''
**********''Inland''
***********''South''
***********''Pomerelian''
**********''[[Koschneiderisch]]''
*********'''[[Low Prussian dialect|Low Prussian]]'''
**********''West Low Prussian''
***********''[[Vistulan dialect|Vistulan]] / Weichseler''
************''Dantzigian''
***********''[[Werdersch]]''
***********''[[Nehrungisch]]''
***********''West Low Prussian diaspora''
************''[[Plautdietsch]] / Mennonite Low German'' ''(Low Saxon, Frisian and Flemish substrates)''
**********''East Low Prussian''
***********''[[Elbingian]]''
***********''[[Elbingian]]''
***********''[[Mundart des Kürzungsgebiets]]''
***********''[[Mundart des Kürzungsgebiets]]''
***********''[[Westkäslausch]]''
***********''[[Ostkäslausch]]''
***********''[[Natangian]]''
***********''[[Natangian]]''
***********''[[Nehrungisch]]''
***********''Bartisch''
***********''[[Ostkäslausch]]''
***********''[[Plautdietsch]]''
***********''[[Samlandic]]''
***********''[[Samlandic]]''
***********''[[Vistulan dialect|Vistulan]]''
***********''Niederungish''
***********''[[Werdersch]]''
***********''[[Eastern Low Prussian]]'' / ''Easternmost Low Prussian''
***********''[[Westkäslausch]]''
********[[Southern Low German]]
**********'''[[Marchian]]'''
*********''[[Eastphalian language|Eastphalian]]''
**********''[[Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect|Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch]]''
**********''Heide-Ostfälisch''
**********'''[[Westniederdeutsch]]'''
**********''Central Eastphalian''
**********''Bördeplatt''
**********''Bode-Ostfälisch''
**********''Göttingisch-Grubenhagensch''
*********''[[Westphalian language|Westphalian]]''
**********''[[East Westphalian]]''
*********''South Westphalian''
*********''Münsterländisch''
*********''Westmünsterländisch''
*********''Gelders-Overijssels''
**********''[[Achterhooks]]''
**********''[[Veluws dialect|Veluws]]''
***********''[[Oost-Veluws dialect|Oost-Veluws]]''
***********''[[West-Veluws dialect|West-Veluws]]''
**********''[[Sallaans dialect|Sallands]]''
**********''[[Urkers dialect|Urkers]]''
*********''[[Drèents dialects|Drents]]''
*********''[[Tweants dialect|Tweants]]''
*********''Grafschafter Platt''
*********''Emsländer Platt'' / ''Nordemsländisch''
*********''Westerwolds''
*********''[[Marchian]]'' ''(Märkisch)'' / ''Brandenburgian (Brandenburgisch)''
**********''North Marchian''
**********''Middle Marchian''
**********''Middle Pomeranian Marchian''
**********''Old South Marchian (extinct)''
*****[[Anglo-Frisian languages]]
*****[[Anglo-Frisian languages]]
******[[Anglic languages]]
******[[Anglic languages]]
*******[[Old English]]   (extinct)
*******[[Old English]] (extinct)
********''[[Mercian dialect|Mercian]]''
********''Angles dialects''
********''[[Northumbrian dialect|Northumbrian]]''
*********''[[Mercian dialect|Mercian]] / Southumbrian''
*********''[[Kentish dialect|Kentish]]''
*********''[[Northumbrian Old English|Old Northumbrian]]''
*********''[[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]]''<ref name="auto4">"The medieval 'New England': A forgotten Anglo-Saxon colony on the north-eastern Black Sea coast" https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818130603/https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html |date=2023-08-18 }}</ref>
********''Jutes dialect''
*********''[[Kentish Old English|Old Kentish]]''
********''Saxons dialect (Insular Saxon, West Saxon)''
*********''[[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]]''
********[[Middle English]]  (extinct)
********[[Middle English]]  (extinct)
*********''[[Northumbrian dialect|Northumbrian]]''
*********''Midland''
**********''East Midland''
**********''West Midland''
*********''Northern''
**********[[Early Scots]] (extinct)
**********[[Early Scots]] (extinct)
***********[[Middle Scots]] (extinct)
***********[[Middle Scots]] (extinct)
************'''[[Scots language|Scots]]'''   (mainly [[Brittonic languages]] and also [[Scottish Gaelic]] substrates in the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and mainly [[Scottish Gaelic]] substrate in the [[Scottish Highlands]])
************'''[[Scots language|Scots]]'''
*************''[[Southern Scots]]''
*************''[[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]]''
**************''[[Glenoe dialect|Glenoe]]''
*************''[[Central Scots]]''
*************''[[Central Scots]]''
**************[[Ayrshire dialect|Ayrshire]]
**************''[[Ayrshire dialect|Ayrshire]]''
**************[[Berwick-upon-Tweed#Berwick dialect|Berwick]]
**************''[[Berwick-upon-Tweed#Berwick dialect|Berwick]]''
**************[[Glasgow dialect|Glasgow]]
**************''[[Glasgow dialect|Glasgow]]''
*************''[[Northern Scots]]''
**************''[[Northern Scots|South Northern Scots]]''
**************''[[Doric dialect (Scotland)|Mid Northern Scots]]''
**************''[[North Northern Scots]]''
***************''[[Cromarty dialect|Cromarty]] (extinct)''
*************''[[Insular Scots]]''
*************''[[Insular Scots]]''
**************[[Orcadian dialect|Orcadian]]
**************''[[Orcadian dialect|Orcadian]]''
**************[[Shetland dialect|Shetland]]
**************''[[Shetland dialect|Shetland]]''
*************''[[Northern Scots]]''
**************[[North Northern Scots]]
***************''[[Cromarty dialect|Cromarty]]'' (extinct)
**************[[Doric dialect (Scotland)|Mid Northern Scots]]
**************[[Northern Scots|South Northern Scots]]
*************''[[Southern Scots]]''
*************''[[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]]''
**************[[Glenoe dialect|Glenoe]]
**********''[[Kentish dialect|Kentish]]''
**********''[[Fingallian]] (extinct)''
**********''[[Fingallian]] (extinct)''
**********[[Yola language|Yola]] (extinct)
**********[[Yola language|Yola]] (extinct)
*********''Kentish (Middle English)''
*********''Southern (Middle English)''
*********[[Early Modern English]]
*********[[Early Modern English]]
**********[[Modern English]]
**********[[Modern English]]
***********'''[[English language|English]]'''
***********'''[[English language|English]]'''
************''[[Standard English]]''
************''[[Standard English]]''
*************''[[English language in Europe|European English]]''
************''[[English language in Europe|European English]]''
**************''[[British English]]''
*************''[[British English]]''
***************''[[English English]]''  
**************''[[English English]]''  
****************''[[Received Pronunciation]]''
***************''[[Received Pronunciation]]''
*****************''[[East Anglian English]]''
***************''[[East Anglian English]]''
******************''[[Norfolk dialect]]''
****************''[[Norfolk dialect]]''
*******************''[[Suffolk dialect]]''
*****************''[[Suffolk dialect]]''
*******************''[[Essex dialect]]''
*****************''[[Essex dialect]]''
******************''[[East Midlands English]]''
***************''[[East Midlands English]]''
******************''[[West Midlands English]]''
***************''[[West Midlands English]]''
*******************''[[Brummie dialect|Birmingham dialect]]''
****************''[[Brummie dialect|Birmingham dialect]]''
*******************''[[Black Country dialect]]''
****************''[[Black Country dialect]]''
*******************''[[Potteries dialect]]''
****************''[[Potteries dialect]]''
*****************''[[English language in Northern England|North English]]''
***************''[[English language in Northern England|North English]]''
******************''[[Yorkshire dialect]]''
****************''[[Yorkshire dialect]]''
******************''[[Geordie]]''
****************''[[Northumbrian dialect|Northumbrian]]''
******************''[[Pitmatic]]''
*****************''[[Geordie]] / Tyneside''
******************''[[Manchester dialect]]''
*****************''[[Pitmatic]]''
******************''[[Scouse|Liverpool dialect]]'' / ''Scouse''
*****************''[[Mackem]]''
******************''[[Cheshire dialect]]''
*****************''[[Smoggie]]''
******************''[[Lancashire dialect]]''
****************''[[Manchester dialect]]''
******************''[[Cumbrian dialect]]''
****************''[[Scouse|Liverpool dialect]]'' / ''Scouse''
*******************''[[Barrovian dialect]]''
****************''[[Cheshire dialect]]''
*****************''[[English language in southern England|South English]]''
****************''[[Lancashire dialect]]''
******************''[[Estuary English]]'' / ''[[London Regional General British]]''
****************''[[Cumbrian dialect]]''
*******************''[[Cockney]]''
*****************''[[Barrovian dialect]]''
********************''[[Multicultural London English]]''
***************''[[English language in southern England|South English]]''
******************''[[Sussex dialect]]''
****************''[[Kentish dialect]]''
******************''[[Surrey dialect]]''
****************''[[Estuary English]]'' / ''[[London Regional General British]]''
******************''[[Kentish dialect]]''
*****************''[[Cockney]]''
*****************''[[West Country English]]''
*****************''[[Multicultural London English]]''
******************''[[Dorset dialect]]''
****************''[[Sussex dialect]]''
******************''[[Wiltshire dialect]]''
****************''[[Surrey dialect]]''
******************''[[Bristolian dialect]]''
****************''[[West Country English]]''
***************''[[Cornish dialect|Cornish English]]''
*****************''[[Dorset dialect]]''
***************''[[Welsh English]]''
*****************''[[Wiltshire dialect]]''
****************''[[Abercraf English]]''
*****************''[[Bristolian dialect]]''
****************''[[Cardiff English]]''
**************''[[Cornish dialect|Cornish English]]''
****************''[[Gower dialect|Gower English]]''
**************''[[Welsh English]]''
****************''[[Port Talbot English]]''
***************''[[Abercraf English]]''
***************''[[Scottish English]]''
***************''[[Cardiff English]]''
****************''[[Bungi dialect|Bungi English]]''
***************''[[Gower dialect|Gower English]]''
****************''[[Glasgow dialect|Glasgow English]]''
***************''[[Port Talbot English]]''
****************''[[Highland English]]''
**************''[[Scottish English]]''
***************''[[Manx English]]''
***************''[[Bungi dialect|Bungi English]]''
**************''[[Hiberno-English]]''
***************''[[Glasgow dialect|Glasgow English]]''
***************''[[Dublin English]]''
***************''[[Highland English]]''
****************''[[South-West Irish English]]''
**************''[[Manx English]]''
****************''[[Mid-Ulster English]]''
*************''[[Hiberno-English]]''
**************''[[Channel Island English|Channel Islands English]]''
**************''[[Dublin English]]''
***************[[Channel Island English#Alderney English|''Alderney English'']]
***************''[[South-West Irish English]]''
***************[[Channel Island English#Guernsey English|''Guernsey English'']]
***************''[[Mid-Ulster English]]''
***************[[Channel Island English#Jersey English|''Jersey English'']]
*************''[[Channel Island English|Channel Islands English]]''
**************''[[Gibraltarian English]]''
**************[[Channel Island English#Alderney English|''Alderney English'']]
**************''[[Maltese English]]''
**************[[Channel Island English#Guernsey English|''Guernsey English'']]
**************''[[Euro English]]''
**************[[Channel Island English#Jersey English|''Jersey English'']]
*************''[[Gibraltarian English]]''
*************''[[Maltese English]]''
*************''[[Euro English]]''
************''[[North American English]]''
************''[[North American English]]''
*************''[[Canadian English]]''
*************''[[Canadian English]]''
Line 1,209: Line 1,752:
**************''[[Southern American English]]''
**************''[[Southern American English]]''
***************''[[Older Southern American English]]''
***************''[[Older Southern American English]]''
****************''[[Appalachian English]]''
****************''[[African American English]]'' / ''[[Black American English]]''
****************''[[African American English]]'' / ''[[Black American English]]''
*****************''[[African-American Vernacular English]]''
*****************''[[African-American Vernacular English]]''
******************''[[Cajun English]]''
***************''[[Cajun English]]''
*****************''[[Appalachian English]]''
**************''[[Chicano English]]''
***************''[[Chicano English]]''
************''[[Caribbean English]]''
************''[[Caribbean English]]''
*************''[[Bermudian English]]''
*************''[[Bermudian English]]''
Line 1,229: Line 1,772:
************''[[South Atlantic English]]''
************''[[South Atlantic English]]''
************''[[Falkland Islands English]]''
************''[[Falkland Islands English]]''
************Oceanian English
************''Oceanian English''
*************''[[Australian English]]''
*************''[[Australian English]]''
**************[[Strine|''Broad Country Australian English '']]
**************[[Strine|''Broad Country Australian English '']]
Line 1,245: Line 1,788:
*************''[[Languages of Papua New Guinea#English|Papuan English]]''
*************''[[Languages of Papua New Guinea#English|Papuan English]]''
*************''[[Solomon Islands English]]''
*************''[[Solomon Islands English]]''
************[[Jewish English varieties|Jewish English]]
************''[[Jewish English varieties|Jewish English]]''
*************''[[Yeshivish]]''
*************''[[Yeshivish]]''
************Asian English
************''Asian English''
*************East Asian English
*************''East Asian English''
**************''[[Hong Kong English]]''
**************''[[Hong Kong English]]''
***************''[[Chinglish]]''
***************''[[Chinglish]]''
*************[[South Asian English]]
*************''[[South Asian English]]''
**************''[[Bangladeshi English]]''
**************''[[Bangladeshi English]]''
**************''[[Indian English|General Indian English]]''
**************''[[Indian English|General Indian English]]''
Line 1,260: Line 1,803:
**************''[[Pakistani English]]''
**************''[[Pakistani English]]''
***************''[[Urdish|Urdish/Urglish]]''
***************''[[Urdish|Urdish/Urglish]]''
*************[[Southeast Asian English]]
*************''[[Southeast Asian English]]''
**************''[[Brunei English]]''
**************''[[Brunei English]]''
**************''[[Burmese English|Burmese / Myanmar English]]''
**************''[[Burmese English|Burmese / Myanmar English]]''
Line 1,269: Line 1,812:
***************''[[Bislish]]''
***************''[[Bislish]]''
***************''[[Taglish]]''
***************''[[Taglish]]''
****************[[Taglish#Coño English|''Coño English'']]
****************''Coño English''
****************[[Taglish#Swardspeak|''Swardspeak'']]
****************''Swardspeak''
**************''[[Singapore English]]''
**************''[[Singapore English]]''
**************''[[Singlish]]''
**************''[[Singlish]]''
**************''[[Tinglish|Thai English]]''
**************''[[Tinglish|Thai English]]''
************[[English in the Commonwealth of Nations#Africa|African English]]
************''[[English in the Commonwealth of Nations#Africa|African English]]''
*************''[[Cameroonian English]]''
*************''[[Cameroonian English]]''
*************''[[Gambian English]]''
*************''[[Gambian English]]''
Line 1,285: Line 1,828:
*************''[[Sierra Leonean English]]''
*************''[[Sierra Leonean English]]''
*************''[[South African English]]''
*************''[[South African English]]''
**************[[South African English#Cape Flats English|''Cape Flats English'']]
**************''Cape Flats English''
**************[[South African English#Black South African English|''Black South African English'']]
**************''Black South African English''
**************[[South African English#Indian South African English|''Indian South African English'']]
**************''Indian South African English''
**************[[South African English#White South African English|''White South African English'']]
**************''White South African English''
**************''[[South Atlantic English]]''
**************''South Atlantic English''
*************''[[Languages of Tanzania|Tanzanian English]]''
*************''Tanzanian English''
*************''[[Ugandan English]]''
*************''[[Ugandan English]]''
*************''[[Zimbabwean English]]''
*************''[[Zimbabwean English]]''
Line 1,332: Line 1,875:
******[[Old East Norse]] (extinct)
******[[Old East Norse]] (extinct)
*******[[Old Gutnish]] (extinct)
*******[[Old Gutnish]] (extinct)
********[[Gutnish]]
********'''[[Gutnish]]'''
*********''Mainland Gutnish''
*********''[[Fårömål dialect|Fårömål]]''
*********''[[Fårömål dialect|Fårömål]]''
*******[[Old Swedish]] (extinct)
*******[[Old Swedish]] (extinct)
********[[Modern Swedish]]
********[[Early Modern Swedish]]
*********[[Early Modern Swedish]]
*********[[Late Modern Swedish]]
**********[[Late Modern Swedish]]
**********[[Modern Swedish]]
***********'''[[Swedish language|Swedish]]'''
***********'''[[Swedish language|Swedish]]'''
************[[Standard Swedish]]
************''[[Standard Swedish]]''
************''[[Svealand Swedish|Svealandic]]''
************''[[Swedish dialects]]''
*************''[[Stockholm dialects]]''
*************''[[Svealand Swedish|Svealandic]]''
*************''[[Uppländska dialect]]''
**************''[[Stockholm dialects]]''
************''[[North Swedish]]''
**************''[[Uppländska dialect]]''
*************''[[Luleå dialects]]''
*************''[[North Swedish]]''
*************''[[Kalix dialect|Kalix]]''
**************''[[Luleå dialects]]''
*************''[[Kiruna dialect]]''
**************''[[Kalix dialect|Kalix]]''
************''[[East Swedish]]''
**************''[[Kiruna dialect]]''
*************''[[Åland Swedish]]''
*************''[[East Swedish]]''
*************''[[Estonian Swedish]]''
**************''[[Åland Swedish]]''
*************''[[Ostrobothnian]]''
**************''[[Estonian Swedish]]''
************''[[Götamål dialect|Götalandic]]''
**************''[[Ostrobothnian]]''
*************''[[Småländska|Northern Smålandic]]''
*************''[[Götamål dialect|Götalandic]]''
************''[[Rinkeby Swedish]]''
**************''[[Småländska|Northern Smålandic]]''
********''[[Scanian dialect|Scanian]]''
*************''[[Rinkeby Swedish]]''
**********''[[Dalecarlian dialects|Swedish Dalarna]]''
**********''[[Scanian dialect|Swedish Scanian]]''
*******[[Old Danish]] (extinct)
*******[[Old Danish]] (extinct)
********[[Middle Danish]] (extinct)
********[[Middle Danish]] (extinct)
*********'''[[Danish language|Danish]]'''
*********'''[[Danish language|Danish]]'''
**********''[[Eastern Danish]]''
**********''Standard Danish''
***********''[[Scanian dialect|Old Scanian]]''
**********''[[Danish dialects]]''
***********''[[Bornholmsk dialect|Bornholmsk]]''
***********''[[Eastern Danish]]''
**********''[[Insular Danish]]''
************''[[Scanian dialect|Old Scanian / Danish Scanian]]''
**********''[[Jutlandic dialect|Jutlandic]]''
************''[[Bornholmsk dialect|Bornholmsk]]''
***********''[[Eastern Jutlandic]]''
***********''[[Insular Danish]]''
***********''[[Western Jutlandic]]''
************''Zealandic Danish''
***********''[[Southern Jutlandic]]''
************''Southern Islands Danish''
*********[[Dano-Norwegian]]
************''Funen''
**********[[Riksmål|Norwegian Riksmål]]
***********''[[Jutlandic dialect|Jutlandic]]''
***********[[Norwegian Bokmål]]
************''Eastern''
************''[[Urban East Norwegian]]''
************''Western''
********[[Gøtudanskt accent|Gøtudanskt]]
************''Southern''
******[[Dalecarlian language|Dalecarlian]] / [[Dalecarlian dialects|Dalarna dialect]]
**********''Danish-based standards''
***********''[[Dano-Norwegian]]''
************''[[Riksmål|Norwegian Riksmål]]''
*************''[[Norwegian Bokmål]]''
**************''[[Urban East Norwegian]]''
***********''[[Gøtudanskt accent|Gøtudanskt]]''
******[[Dalecarlian language|Dalecarlian]]
*******''[[Elfdalian]]''
*******''[[Elfdalian]]''
******[[Jamtlandic language|Jamtlandic]]
*****[[West Scandinavian]]
*****[[West Scandinavian]]
******[[Old West Norse]] (extinct)
******[[Old West Norse]] (extinct)
Line 1,379: Line 1,930:
********[[Middle Norwegian]] (extinct)
********[[Middle Norwegian]] (extinct)
*********'''[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]'''
*********'''[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]'''
**********[[Høgnorsk|Norwegian Høgnorsk]]
**********''Norwegian Standards''
***********[[Nynorsk|Norwegian Nynorsk]]
***********''[[Høgnorsk|Norwegian Høgnorsk]]''
**********''[[Østnorsk]]''
************''Landsmål''
***********''[[Vikværsk]]''
*************''[[Nynorsk|Norwegian Nynorsk]]''
***********[[Urban East Norwegian]]
***********''[[Samnorsk]] (Nynorsk-Bokmål [[Koiné language|Koiné]])''
************[[Oslo dialect]]
***********''[[Dano-Norwegian]]''
***********''[[Dølamål]]''
************''[[Riksmål]]''
***********''[[Hallingmål-Valdris]]''
*************''[[Bokmål|Norwegian Bokmål]]''
*********** [[Gudbrandsdalsmål]]
**********''[[Norwegian dialects]]''
**********''[[Vestlandsk|Vestnorsk]]''
***********''[[Østnorsk]]''
***********''[[Arendalsk|Arendal dialect]]''
************''[[Vikværsk]]''
***********''[[Sandnes-mål|Sandnes dialect]]''
************''[[Urban East Norwegian]]''
***********''[[Stavangersk|Stavanger dialect]]''
*************''[[Oslo dialect]]''
***********''[[Bergensk]]''
************''[[Dølamål]]''
***********''[[Sognamål]]''
************''[[Hallingmål-Valdris]]''
**********''[[Trøndersk]]''
************''[[Gudbrandsdalsmål]]''
***********[[Jamtlandic]]
***********''[[Vestlandsk|Vestnorsk]]''
***********[[Meldal dialect|Medalsk]]
************''[[Arendalsk|Arendal dialect]]''
*********** [[Trondheimsk]]
************''[[Sandnes-mål|Sandnes dialect]]''
**********''[[Nordnorsk]]''
************''[[Stavangersk|Stavanger dialect]]''
***********[[Brønnøy dialect]]
************''[[Bergensk]]''
********** [[Kebabnorsk]]
************''[[Sognamål]]''
********** [[American Norwegian]]
***********''[[Trøndersk]]''
*********[[Faroese language|Early Faroese]]
************''[[Trondheimsk]]''
**********[[Faroese language|Old Faroese]]
************''[[Meldal dialect|Medalsk]]''
************''[[Jamtlandic]]''
***********''[[Nordnorsk]]''
************''[[Brønnøy dialect]]''
***********''[[Kebabnorsk]]''
***********''Norwegian diaspora''
************''[[American Norwegian]]''
*********Early Faroese
**********Old Faroese
***********'''[[Faroese language|Faroese]]'''
***********'''[[Faroese language|Faroese]]'''
*********[[Norn language|Norn]]  (extinct)
*********[[Norn language|Norn]]  (extinct)
Line 1,429: Line 1,988:
*[[Proto-Baltic]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Baltic]] (extinct)
**[[Dnieper-Oka language|Dnieper-Oka]] (extinct)
**[[Dnieper-Oka language|Dnieper-Oka]] (extinct)
***[[Golyad language|Golyad]] (extinct)
***[[Golyad language|Golyad]] / East Galindian (extinct)
**[[Eastern Baltic languages|Eastern Baltic]]
**[[Eastern Baltic languages|Eastern Baltic]]
***[[Latvian language|Old Latvian]] (extinct)
***[[Latvian language|Old Latvian]] (Old Latgalian) (extinct)
****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]'''
****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]''' / Broad Latvian
*****'''[[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]'''
*****''[[Latvian dialects]]''
*****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]'''
******'''[[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]''' / High Latgalian / High Latvian (Highland Latvian)
******''[[Kursenieki language|Kursenieki]]''
*******''Standard Latgalian''
****[[Selonian language|Selonian]] (extinct)
*******''Latgalian dialects''
****[[Semigallian language|Semigallian]] (extinct)
********''Latgalian Proper / Non-Selonic''
********''Selonic''
******'''Latvian''' (Lowland Latvian)
*******''Middle / Central''
********''Standard Latvian''
********''Middle / Central Proper / Vidzeme / Low Latgalian''
********''Semigallic''
********''Curonic / Latvian Curonian''
*********''[[Kursenieki language|Kursenieki]] / Curonian Isthmus Latvian / New Curonian''
*******''Livonic Latvian / Tamian''
********''Vidzeme Livonic / Central Region Livonic''
********''Courland / North Courland Livonic / Tāmnieku''
***[[Selonian language|Selonian]] (extinct)
***[[Semigallian language|Semigallian]] (extinct)
***[[Old Lithuanian]] (extinct)
***[[Old Lithuanian]] (extinct)
****'''[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]'''
****'''[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]''' / Broad Lithuanian
*****'''[[Aukštaitian dialect|Highland Lithuanian]]''' / '''Aukštaitian'''
*****''[[Lithuanian dialects]]''
*****'''[[Samogitian dialect|Lowland Lithuanian]]''' / '''Samogitian'''
******'''[[Aukštaitian dialect|Aukštaitian]]''' (Highland Lithuanian)
***[[Curonian language|Curonian]] (extinct)
*******''Standard Lithuanian''
*******''Highland Lithuanian dialects''
********''Eastern''
********''Western''
*********''Suvalkian / Sudovic Aukštaitian''
********''Southern / [[Dzūkian dialect|Dzūkian]]''
******'''[[Samogitian language|Samogitian]]''' (Lowland Lithuanian)
*******''Southern''
*******''Northern / Curonic Samogitian''
*******''Western''
**[[Western Baltic language|Western Baltic]]
**[[Western Baltic language|Western Baltic]]
***[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] / [[Baltic Prussian]] (extinct)
***[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] / Baltic Prussian  (extinct)
****[[Old Prussian language#Revitalization|New Prussian]]
****'''[[Old Prussian language#Revitalization|New Prussian]]''' (Revived Prussian)
***[[Skalvians|Skalvian]] (extinct)
***[[Skalvians|Skalvian]] (extinct)
***[[Galindian language|Galindian]] (extinct)
***[[Galindian language|Galindian]] / West Galindian (extinct)
***[[Sudovian language|Sudovian]]  (extinct)
***[[Sudovian language|Sudovian / Yatvingian]]  (extinct)
***[[Curonian language|Curonian]] / Old Curonian? (extinct)
***[[West Baltic language#Pomeranian-Baltic language|Pomeranian Baltic]] (extinct)
***[[West Baltic language#Pomeranian-Baltic language|Pomeranian Baltic]] (extinct)
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}
Line 1,456: Line 2,038:
*[[Proto-Slavic]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Slavic]] (extinct)
**[[East Slavic languages]]
**[[East Slavic languages]]
***[[Old Novgorod dialect|Old Novgorodian]] (extinct)
***[[Old East Slavic]] / Common East Slavic / Old Russian (broad sense of East Slavic) (extinct)
****[[Old East Slavic]]  (extinct)
****Southern Old East Slavic (all East Slavic except Old Novgorodian)
*****[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] (extinct)
*****[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] / Southwestern-Southern-Central Old East Slavic (extinct)
******'''[[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]''' / '''Carpathian Rusyn'''
******Southwestern Old East Slavic
*******''[[Lemkos#Language/dialect|Lemko]]''
*******'''[[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]'''
*******''[[Pannonian Rusyn language|Pannonian Rusyn]]'' / ''Bačka Rusyn''
********'''Carpathian Rusyn'''
******'''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]'''
*********''[[Hutsul dialect|Hutsul]] / Eastern Carpathian''
*******''[[Balachka]]''
*********''[[Boyko dialect|Boyko]] / North Carpathian''
*******''[[Canadian Ukrainian]]''
*********''[[Transcarpathian dialect|Transcarpathian]]''
*******''[[Northern Ukrainian dialects|Northern Ukrainian]]''
*********''[[Lemko dialect|Lemko]] / West Carpathian''
*******''[[Southeastern Ukrainian dialects|Southeastern Ukrainian]]''
********''[[Pannonian Rusyn language|Pannonian Rusyn]]'' / ''Bačka Rusyn'' ''(East Slavic influenced by Slovak or a West Slavic language closer to Slovak)''
********''[[Middle Dnieprian dialect|Middle Dnieprian]]''
******Southern Old East Slavic
********''[[Slobozhan dialect|Slobozhan]]''
*******'''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]'''
********''[[Steppe dialect|Steppe]]''
********''[[Ukrainian dialects]]''
*******''[[Southwestern Ukrainian dialects|Southwestern Ukrainian]]''
*********''[[Southwestern Ukrainian dialects|Southwestern Ukrainian]] (Western Southern Ukrainian)''
********''[[Boyko dialect|Boyko]]''
**********''Volhynian-Podilian''  
********''[[Dniestrian Ukrainian dialect|Dniestrian]]''
***********''[[Volhynian dialect|Volhynian]]''
********''[[Hutsul dialect|Hutsul]]''
***********''[[Podolian dialect|Podolian]]''
********''[[Lemko dialect|Lemko]]''
**********''Galician–Bukovinian''
********''[[Podolian dialect|Podolian]]''
***********''[[Dniestrian Ukrainian dialect|Dniestrian]] / Upper Dniestrian / Opilia''
********''[[Pokuttia–Bukovina dialect|Pokuttia–Bukovina]]''
***********''[[Upper Sannian dialect|Upper Sannian]]''
********''[[Transcarpathian dialect|Transcarpathian]]''
***********''[[Pokuttia–Bukovina dialect|Pokuttia–Bukovina]]''
********''[[Upper Sannian dialect|Upper Sannian]]''
***********''Diaspora dialect''
********''[[Volhynian dialect|Volhynian]]''
************''[[Canadian Ukrainian]]''
*******'''[[Polesian language|Polesian]]''' / '''[[Polesian language|Polisian]]'''
*********''[[Southeastern Ukrainian dialects|Southeastern Ukrainian]] (Eastern Southern Ukrainian)''
********''[[West Polesian microlanguage|West Polesian]]''
**********''[[Middle Dnieprian dialect|Middle Dnieprian]]''
*********''[[Motolian dialect|Motolian]]''
***********''Standard Ukrainian''
******'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]'''
***********''[[Balachka]]'' / ''Kuban''
*****'''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''
**********''[[Slobozhan dialect|Slobozhan]]''
******''[[Russian dialects#Abkhaz Russian|Abkhaz]]''
**********''[[Steppe dialect|Steppe]]''
******''[[Republic of Artsakh#Languages|Artsakhi]]''
*********''[[Northern Ukrainian dialects|Northern Ukrainian]] / Polesian / Polisian''
******''[[Russian language in Belarus|Belarusian]]''
**********''East Polesian''
******''[[Central Russian]]'' / ''Middle Russian''
**********''Central Polesian''
*******''[[Lake Peipus dialect|Lake Peipus]]''
**********''[[West Polesian microlanguage|West Polesian]]''
*******''[[Moscow dialect|Moscow]]''
***********''[[Motolian dialect|Motolian]]''
*******''[[Siberian dialects|Siberian]]''
******Central Old East Slavic
******''[[Russian dialects#Chechen Russian|Chechen]]''
*******'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]'''
******''[[Dagestani Russian|Dagestani]]''
********''[[Belarusian dialects]]''
******''[[Goryun language|Goryun]] / [[Goryun language|Horyun]]''
*********''Southwestern Belarusian''
******''[[Russian language in Israel|Israeli]]''
*********''Middle Belarusian''
******''[[Russian dialects#Kazakhstani Russian|Kazakhstani]]''
*********''Northeastern Belarusian''
******''[[Russian dialects#Kyrgyzstani Russian|Kyrgyzstani]]''
*****Northeastern Old East Slavic
******''[[Russian language in Latvia|Latvian]]''
******'''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''
******''[[Russian dialects#Moldovan Russian|Moldovan]]''
*******''[[Russian dialects]]''
******''[[Northern Russian]]''
********''Spoken mainly by Ethnic Russians''
*******''[[Alaskan Russian|Alaskan]]''
*********''[[Southern Russian]]''
*******''[[Pomor dialects|Pomor]]''
**********''Western / Russian-Belarusian''
******''[[Southern Russian]]''
**********''Upper Dnieperian''
*******''[[Astrakhan Russian|Astrakhan]]''
**********''Upper Desnian''
*******''[[Doukhobor Russian|Doukhobor]]''
**********''Kursk-Orel / Orlovsky''
******''[[Surzhyk]]''
**********''Tulian''
*******''[[Odesan Russian|Odesan]]''
**********''Yeletsian''
******''[[Russian dialects#Tajikistani Russian|Tajikistani]]''
**********''Oskolian''
******''[[Russian language in Ukraine|Ukrainian]]''
**********''Ryazanian''
******''[[Russian dialects#Uzbekistani Russian|Uzbekistani]]''
**********''Southern Russian Diaspora''
***********''[[Doukhobor Russian|Doukhobor]]''
*********''Central-Northern''
**********''[[Central Russian]]'' / ''Middle Russian''
***********''West Central''
************''Pskovian''
************''[[Lake Peipus dialect|Lake Peipus]]''
************''Gdovian''
************''Novgorodian''
************''Torzhokian''
************''Saint-Petersburgish''
*************''Standard Russian (Saint-Petersburg Norm)''
***********''East Central''
************''[[Moscow dialect|Moscow]]''
*************''Standard Russian (Moscow Norm)''
************''Vladimirian-Volgan'' / ''Tverian-Vladimirian-Volgan''
************''Chukhlomian (dialect island/enclave)''
************''[[Astrakhan Russian|Astrakhan]]''
**********''[[Northern Russian]]''
***********''Ladogan-Tikhvinian''
***********''Belozeran-Bezhetsian''
***********''Onegan''
***********''Lachian''
***********''Kostromian''
***********''Vologdan''
***********''[[Pomor dialects|Pomor]]''
***********''[[Siberian dialects|Siberian]]''
************''[[Alaskan Russian|Alaskan]]''
*********''Russian Diaspora dialects'' ''(see [[Geographical distribution of Russian speakers]])''
**********''Neighbouring countries of Russia (spoken by ethnic Russians)''
***********''[[Russian language in Ukraine|Ukrainian]]''
***********''[[Russian language in Belarus|Belarusian]]''
***********''[[Russian language in Latvia|Latvian Russian]]''
***********''Lithuanian Russian''
***********''Estonian Russian''
***********''Kazakh Russian''
**********''Eastern Europe''
***********''Transnistrian Russian''
**********''North America''
***********''[[Russian language in the United States|American Russian]]''
********''Spoken by Non-Ethnic Russians'' ''(overlapping with native languages)''
*********''In Eastern Europe''
**********''[[Russian language in Ukraine|Ukrainian]] (spoken by Ukrainians, not ethnic Russians)''
**********''[[Russian language in Belarus|Belarusian]] (spoken by Belarusians, not ethnic Russians)''
**********''Moldovan Russian (spoken by Moldovans, not ethnic Russians)''
*********''In Russia''
**********''European Russia''
***********''Mordvin Russian''
***********''Mari Russian''
***********''Udmurt Russian''
***********''Komi Russian''
***********''Karelian Russian''
***********''Chuvash Russian''
***********''Tatar Russian''
***********''Bashkir Russian''
**********''Siberia / Asian Russia''
***********''Buryat Russian''
***********''Chukchi Russian''
***********''Tuvan Russian''
**********''Russian Caucasus''
***********''Ossetian Russian''
***********''Circassian Russian''
***********''Abkhaz Russian''
***********''Chechen Russian''
***********''[[Dagestani Russian|Dagestani]]''
*********''In Southwest Asia / Middle East''
**********''Georgian Russian''
**********''Armenian Russian''
**********''[[Russian language in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani Russian]]''
**********''[[Russian language in Israel|Israeli Russian]] (spoken by ethnic Jews)''
*********''In Central Asia''
**********''Kazakhstani Russian''
**********''Kyrgyzstani Russian''
**********''Uzbekistani Russian''
**********''Turkmenistani Russian''
**********''Tajikistani Russian''
****Northern / Northwestern Old East Slavic (extinct)
*****Proto-Novgorodian-Pskovian (extinct)
******[[Old Novgorod dialect|Old Novgorodian]] (extinct)
***Mixed East Slavic languages
****Mixed Russian-Belarusian-Ukrainian
*****'''[[Goryun language|Goryun]]''' / '''Horyun'''
****Mixed Russian-Ukrainian
*****'''[[Surzhyk]]'''
******''[[Odesan Russian|Odesan]]''
**[[West Slavic languages]]
**[[West Slavic languages]]
***[[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
***[[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
****[[Lechitic languages|East Lechitic]]
****East Lechitic
*****[[Old Polish language|Old Polish]] (extinct)
*****[[Old Polish language|Old Polish]] (extinct)
******[[Middle Polish]] (extinct)
******[[Middle Polish]] (extinct)
Line 1,526: Line 2,192:
********''[[New mixed dialects|New Mixed Dialects]]''
********''[[New mixed dialects|New Mixed Dialects]]''
********[[Masurian dialects|Masurian]]
********[[Masurian dialects|Masurian]]
****[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]
*****'''[[Silesian language|Silesian]] / Upper Silesian / Slavic Silesian'''
*****'''[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]'''
******''[[Cieszyn Silesian dialect|Cieszyn Silesian]]''
*****[[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] (extinct)
******''[[Sulkovian dialect|Sulkovian]]''
******''[[Prudnik dialect|Prudnik]]''
******''[[Niemodlin dialect|Niemodlin]]''
******''[[Lach dialects|Lachian]]''
****Middle Lechitic
*****[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]
******'''[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]'''
******[[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] (extinct)
****[[West Lechitic dialects|West Lechitic]] (extinct)
****[[West Lechitic dialects|West Lechitic]] (extinct)
*****[[Polabian language|Polabian]]
*****Old Polabian
*****[[Marcho-Magdeburgian dialect|Marcho-Magdeburgian]]
******''[[Rani dialect|Rani]]''
*****[[Rani dialect|Rani]]
******''[[Marcho-Magdeburgian dialect|Marcho-Magdeburgian]]''
****'''[[Silesian language|Silesian]]'''
*******[[Polabian language|Polabian]] / Drevanian / Lüneburg Wendish (extinct)
*****''[[Cieszyn Silesian dialect|Cieszyn Silesian]]''
*****''[[Sulkovian dialect|Sulkovian]]''
*****''[[Prudnik dialect|Prudnik]]''
*****''[[Niemodlin dialect|Niemodlin]]''
*****''[[Lach dialects|Lachian]]''
***[[Czech-Slovak languages|Czech-Slovak]]
***[[Czech-Slovak languages|Czech-Slovak]]
****'''[[Czech language|Czech]]'''
****'''[[Czech language|Czech]]'''
*****''[[Biblical Czech language|Biblical Czech]]''
*****''Bohemian'' ''(Czech proper)''
*****''[[Czech language|Standard Czech]]''
******''[[Biblical Czech language|Biblical Czech]]''
*****''[[Common Czech]]''
******''[[Czech language|Standard Czech]]''
******[[Czechoslovak language|Czechoslovak]]
******''[[Common Czech]]''
*******[[Czechoslovak language|Czechoslovak]]
******''Central Bohemian''
******''Northeastern Bohemian''
******''Southwestern Bohemian''
*****''[[Moravian dialects|Moravian]]''
*****''[[Moravian dialects|Moravian]]''
******''Bohemian–Moravian''
******''Central Moravian''
******''Eastern Moravian''
******''[[Moravian Wallachian dialect|Moravian Wallachian]]''
******''[[Moravian Wallachian dialect|Moravian Wallachian]]''
****'''[[Slovak language|Slovak]]'''/'''[[Slovakian language|Slovakian]]'''
****'''[[Slovak language|Slovak]]''' / '''Slovakian'''
*****''[[Camaldolese Slovak]]''
*****''Western Slovak''
******''[[Camaldolese Slovak]]''
*****''Central Slovak''
*****''[[Eastern Slovak dialects|Eastern Slovak]]''
*****''[[Eastern Slovak dialects|Eastern Slovak]]''
******[[Pannonian Rusyn]]
******[[Pannonian Rusyn]]
****[[Knaanic language|Knaanic]]   (extinct)
****[[Knaanic language|Knaanic]] (extinct)
***[[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
***[[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
****'''[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]'''
****'''[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]'''
Line 1,558: Line 2,235:
**[[South Slavic languages]]
**[[South Slavic languages]]
***[[Western South Slavic]]
***[[Western South Slavic]]
****[[Alpine Slavic]]
****Old Slovene / Alpine Slovene (=Slavic) / [[Carantanians|Carantanian]]
*****[[Slovene dialects#Unification|Alpine Slovene]] / [[Slovene dialects#Unification|Old Slovene]]
*****'''[[Slovene language|Slovene]]'''
******'''[[Slovene language|Slovene]]'''
******''[[Slovene dialects]] (dialect groups)''
*******''[[Pannonian dialect group|Pannonian]]''
*******''Southeastern''
********''[[Prekmurje Slovene]]''
********''Eastern''
*******''[[Styrian dialect group|Styrian]]''
*********''[[Pannonian dialect group|Pannonian]]''
*******''[[Carinthian dialect group|Carinthian]]''
**********''[[Prekmurje Slovene]]''
*******''[[Resian dialect|Resian]]''
*********''[[Styrian dialect group|Northern Styrian]]''
*******''[[Littoral dialect group|Littoral]]''
********''Southern''
*******''[[Upper Carniolan dialect group|Upper Carniolan]]''
*********''[[Styrian dialect group|Southern Styrian]]''
*******''[[Lower Carniolan dialect group|Lower Carniolan]]''
*********''[[Upper Carniolan dialect group|Upper Carniolan]]''
*******''[[Rovte dialect group|Rovte]]''
*********''[[Rovte dialect group|Eastern Rovte]]''
****'''[[Serbo-Croatian]]'''
*********''[[Lower Carniolan dialect group|Lower Carniolan]]''
**********''[[Littoral dialect group|Southeastern Littoral]]''
*******''Northwestern''
********''Northern''
*********''[[Carinthian dialect group|Carinthian]]''
*********''[[Resian dialect|Resian]]''
********''Western''
*********''Soča-Idrija''
**********''[[Rovte dialect group|Western Rovte]]''
*********''Venetian-Karst''
**********''[[Littoral dialect group|Northwestern Littoral]]''
****'''Kajkavian-Chakavian-Shtokavian / Central South Slavic'''
*****'''[[Kajkavian]]'''
*****'''[[Kajkavian]]'''
******''Gora''
******''Križevci–Podravina''
******''Lower Sutla''
******''Prigorje''
******''Turopolje–Posavina''
******''Zagor–Međimurje''
*****'''[[Chakavian]]'''
*****'''[[Chakavian]]'''
******''[[Central Chakavian]]'' / ''[[Middle Chakavian]]''
******''[[Central Chakavian]]'' / ''[[Middle Chakavian]]''
Line 1,581: Line 2,275:
******''[[Buzet dialect|Buzet]]''
******''[[Buzet dialect|Buzet]]''
*****'''[[Shtokavian]]'''
*****'''[[Shtokavian]]'''
******''[[Šokac dialect|Šokac]]''
******''Western Shtokavian''
******''[[Zeta–Raška dialect|Zeta–Raška]]''
*******''Old Western Shtokavian''
******''[[Smederevo–Vršac dialect|Smederevo-Vršac]]''
********''Slavonian (Archaic Šćakavian)''
******''[[Dubrovnik subdialect]]''
*********''[[Šokac dialect|Šokac]]''
******''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Younger Ikavian]]''
********''Eastern Bosnian (Jekavian-Šćakavian)''
*******''[[Slavomolisano dialect|Slavomolisano]]''
*******''New Western Shtokavian''
*******''[[Bunjevac dialect|Bunjevac]]''
********''Bosnian–Dalmatian (Western Ikavian / Younger Ikavian)''
******''[[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Eastern Herzegovinian]]''
*********''Bosnian-West Herzegovinian''
*******''[[Užican dialect|Užice]]'' / ''[[Užican dialect|Užican]]'' / ''[[Užican dialect|Zlatibor]]''
*********''Dalmatian''
********''[[Dubrovnik subdialect]]''
**********''[[Slavomolisano dialect|Slavomolisano]]''
*******[[Serbo-Croatian|Serbo-Croatian standards]]
*********''[[Bunjevac dialect|Bunjevac]]''
********''[[Serbian language|Serbian]]''
*******''New Southern Shtokavian''
********''[[Croatian language|Croatian]]''
********''Southeastern''
********''[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]''
*********''[[Užican dialect|Užican]]'' / ''Užice'' / ''Zlatibor''
********''[[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]''
*********''[[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Eastern Herzegovinian]] (Neo-Ijekavian)''
******''[[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect|Šumadija–Vojvodina]]''
**********'''[[Serbo-Croatian|Serbo-Croatian standards]] / Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian'''
***********''[[Serbian language|Serbian]]''
***********''[[Croatian language|Croatian]]''
***********''[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]''
***********''[[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]''
********''Northwestern''
*********''Krajina''
********''Southwestern''
*********''[[Dubrovnik subdialect]] (Western Ijekavian)''
******''Eastern Shtokavian''
*******''Old Eastern Shtokavian''
********''[[Smederevo–Vršac dialect|Smederevo–Vršac]]''
********''Kosovo–Resava / Resava-North Kosovo (Older Ekavian)''
********''[[Zeta–Raška dialect|Zeta–Raška]] / Zeta-South Sandžak (Đekavian-Ijekavian)''
*******''New Eastern Shtokavian''
********''[[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect|Šumadija–Vojvodina]] (Younger Ekavian)''
****'''[[Torlakian dialects|Torlakian]]'''
****'''[[Torlakian dialects|Torlakian]]'''
*****''[[Prizren–Timok dialect|Timok-Prizren]]''
*****''Serbian Torlakian''
*****''[[Gora dialect]]''  
******''[[Prizren–Timok dialect|Timok-Prizren]] / South Morava - South Kosovo''
*****''[[Transitional Bulgarian dialects]]''
*******''Timok-Lužnica''
*******''Svrljig-Zaplanje''
*******''South Morava-Prizren''
*****''[[Transitional Bulgarian dialects]] (closer to Torlakian)''
******''[[Belogradchik dialect]]''
******''[[Breznik dialect]]''
******''[[Tran dialect]]''
******''[[Tran dialect]]''
******''[[Breznik dialect]]''
*****''Northern Macedonian (closer to Torlakian)''
******''[[Belogradchik dialect]]''
******''[[Kriva Palanka dialect]]''
***[[Eastern South Slavic]] /
******''[[Kumanovo dialect]]''
****''[[Old Church Slavonic]]'' (extinct)
******''[[Skopska Crna Gora dialect]]''
*****'''[[Church Slavonic]]'''
******''[[Tetovo dialect]]''
****[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]-[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
*****''[[Gora dialect]] (Torlakian ou Slavic Macedonian)''
*****'''[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]'''
*****''Romanian Torlakian''
******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Western Bulgarian]]''
******''[[Krashovani]] (ethnically Croatian but closer to Torlakian in dialect)''
*******''[[Northwestern Bulgarian dialects|Northwestern]]''
***[[Eastern South Slavic]]
********''[[Vidin-Lom dialect]]''
****[[Old Slavonic]] / [[Old Church Slavonic]] (not exclusively ecclesiastical) / Old East South Slavic (extinct)
********''[[Byala Slatina-Pleven dialect]]''
*****Church Slavonic Proper
*******''[[Southwestern Bulgarian dialects|Southwestern]]''
******Old Church Slavonic
********''[[Vratsa dialect]]''
*******'''[[Church Slavonic]]'''
********''[[Botevgrad dialect]]''
*****Modern East South Slavic (Slavic Bulgarian-Slavic Macedonian)
********''[[Ihtiman dialect]]''
******'''[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (Slavic Bulgarian)'''
********''[[Samokov dialect]]''
*******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Western Bulgarian]]''
********''[[Elin Pelin dialect]]''
********''[[Northwestern Bulgarian dialects|Northwestern]]''
********''[[Sofia dialect]]''
*********''[[Vidin-Lom dialect]]''
********''[[Dupnitsa dialect]]''
*********''[[Byala Slatina-Pleven dialect]]''
********''[[Kyustendil dialect]]''
********''[[Southwestern Bulgarian dialects|Southwestern]]''
******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Eastern Bulgarian]]''
*********''[[Vratsa dialect]]''
*******''[[Moesian dialects|Moesian]]''
*********''[[Botevgrad dialect]]''
********''[[Shumen dialect]]''
*********''[[Ihtiman dialect]]''
*******''[[Balkan dialects of Bulgarian|Balkan]]''
*********''[[Samokov dialect]]''
********''[[Central Balkan dialect]]''
*********''[[Elin Pelin dialect]]''
********''[[Kotel-Elena-Dryanovo dialect]]''
*********''[[Sofia dialect]]''
********''[[Panagyurishte dialect]]''
*********''[[Dupnitsa dialect]]''
********''[[Pirdop dialect]]''
*********''[[Kyustendil dialect]]''
********''[[Teteven dialect]]''
*******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Eastern Bulgarian]]''
********''[[Erkech dialect]]''
********''[[Moesian dialects|Moesian]]''
********''[[Subbalkan dialect]]''
*********''[[Shumen dialect]]''
*******''[[Rup dialects|Rup]]''
********''[[Balkan dialects of Bulgarian|Balkan]]''
********''[[Strandzha dialect]]''
*********''[[Central Balkan dialect]]''
********''[[Thracian dialect]]''
*********''[[Kotel-Elena-Dryanovo dialect]]''
********''[[Hvoyna dialect]]''
*********''[[Panagyurishte dialect]]''
********''[[Smolyan dialect]]''
*********''[[Pirdop dialect]]''
*********''[[Pomak language|Pomak dialect]]''
*********''[[Teteven dialect]]''
********''[[Chepino dialect]]''
*********''[[Erkech dialect]]''
********''[[Paulician dialect]]''
*********''[[Subbalkan dialect]]''
*********''[[Banat Bulgarian dialect|Banat Bulgarian]]''
********''[[Rup dialects|Rup]] / Southeastern Bulgarian''
********''[[Zlatograd dialect]]''
*********"True" Rup
********''[[Babyak dialect]]''
**********''[[Strandzha dialect]]''
********''[[Razlog dialect]]''
**********''[[Thracian dialect]]''
******'''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]'''
**********''[[Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect]]''  
*******''[[Kumanovo dialect]]''
*********''[[Babyak dialect]]''
*******''[[Kriva Palanka dialect]]''
*********''[[Razlog dialect]]''
*******''[[Skopska Crna Gora dialect]]''
*********''[[Zlatograd dialect]]''
*******''[[Tetovo dialect]]''
*********Rhodopean
*******''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect]]''
**********''[[Hvoyna dialect]]''
*******''[[Štip-Kočani dialect]]''
**********''[[Chepino dialect]]''
*******''[[Strumica dialect]]''
**********''[[Smolyan dialect]] / Central Rhodope''
*******''[[Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect]]''
***********''[[Pomak language|Pomak dialect]]''
*******''[[Solun-Voden dialect]]''
**********''[[Paulician dialect]]''
*******''[[Kostur dialect]]''
***********''[[Banat Bulgarian dialect|Banat Bulgarian]]''
*******''[[Nestram-Kostenar dialect]]''
*******'''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] (Slavic Macedonian)'''
*******''[[Prilep-Bitola dialect]]''
*******''[[Kičevo-Poreče dialect]]''
*******''[[Skopje-Veles dialect]]''
*******''[[Lower Prespa dialect]]''
*******''[[Upper Prespa dialect]]''
*******''[[Ohrid dialect]]''
*******''[[Struga dialect]]''
*******''[[Vevčani-Radožda dialect]]''
*******''[[Debar dialect]]''
*******''[[Galičnik dialect]]''
*******''[[Reka dialect]]''
*******''[[Gostivar dialect]]''
*******''[[Spoken Macedonian]]''
********''[[Standard Macedonian]]''
********''[[Standard Macedonian]]''
*********''[[Spoken Macedonian]]''
********''Eastern-Southern''
*********''Eastern''
**********''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect]]''
**********''[[Štip-Kočani dialect]]''
**********''[[Strumica dialect]]''
*********''Southern''
**********''Southeastern''
***********''[[Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect]]''
***********''[[Solun-Voden dialect]]''
**********''Southwestern''
***********''[[Kostur dialect]]''
***********''[[Nestram-Kostenar dialect]]''
********''Western''
*********''Central''
**********''[[Skopje-Veles dialect]]''
**********''[[Kičevo-Poreče dialect]]''
**********''[[Prilep-Bitola dialect]]''
*********''Peripheral dialects''
**********''[[Gostivar dialect]]''
**********''[[Galičnik dialect]]''
**********''[[Reka dialect]]''
**********''[[Debar dialect]]''
**********''[[Ohrid dialect]]''
**********''[[Struga dialect]]''
**********''[[Upper Prespa dialect]]''
**********''[[Lower Prespa dialect]]''
**********''[[Vevčani-Radožda dialect]]''
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}


Line 1,692: Line 2,421:
***[[Northeastern Iranian languages]]
***[[Northeastern Iranian languages]]
****[[Northeastern Iranian|Old Northeast Iranian]]
****[[Northeastern Iranian|Old Northeast Iranian]]
*****[[Scytho-Sarmatian language|Scytho-Sarmatian]]
*****[[Scythian languages|Scytho-Sarmatian]]
******[[Cimmerian language|Cimmerian]] (extinct)
******[[Cimmerian language|Cimmerian]] (extinct)
******[[Scythian languages|Pontic Scythian]] (extinct)
******[[Pontic Scythian language|Pontic Scythian]] (extinct)
******[[Sarmatian languages|Sarmatian]] (extinct)
******[[Sarmatian languages|Sarmatian]] (extinct)
*******[[Alanic language|Alanic]] (extinct)
*******[[Alanic language|Alanic]] (extinct)
Line 1,704: Line 2,433:
*******''[[Tumshuqese]] (extinct)''
*******''[[Tumshuqese]] (extinct)''
*******''[[Saka languages|Kanchaki]] (extinct)''
*******''[[Saka languages|Kanchaki]] (extinct)''
*******''[[Khotanese language|Khotanese]]'' ''(extinct)''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.archaeology.org/news/11600-230719-unknown-kushan-script | title="Unknown Kushan Script" Partially Deciphered - Archaeology Magazine | access-date=2023-09-26 | archive-date=2023-09-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926160005/https://www.archaeology.org/news/11600-230719-unknown-kushan-script | url-status=live }}</ref>
*******''[[Khotanese language|Khotanese]]'' ''(extinct)''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.archaeology.org/news/11600-230719-unknown-kushan-script | title="Unknown Kushan Script" Partially Deciphered - Archaeology Magazine | date=18 July 2023 | access-date=2023-09-26 | archive-date=2023-09-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926160005/https://www.archaeology.org/news/11600-230719-unknown-kushan-script | url-status=live }}</ref>
******[[Khwarazmian language|Khwarazmian]] / Chorasmian<ref>{{cite web | url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chorasmia-iii | title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica | access-date=2023-10-05 | archive-date=2020-11-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021945/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chorasmia-iii | url-status=live }}</ref> (extinct)
******[[Khwarazmian language|Khwarazmian]] / Chorasmian<ref>{{cite web | url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chorasmia-iii | title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica | access-date=2023-10-05 | archive-date=2020-11-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021945/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chorasmia-iii | url-status=live }}</ref> (extinct)
******[[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] (extinct)
******[[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] (extinct)
Line 1,712: Line 2,441:
*****[[Avestan language|Avestan]] (extinct)
*****[[Avestan language|Avestan]] (extinct)
******[[Old Avestan]] / "Gathic Avestan"<ref>"The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the [[Rigveda]], and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Witzel, 1995)", quoted in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921152517/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence |date=2023-09-21 }}</ref> (extinct)
******[[Old Avestan]] / "Gathic Avestan"<ref>"The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the [[Rigveda]], and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Witzel, 1995)", quoted in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921152517/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence |date=2023-09-21 }}</ref> (extinct)
*******[[Young Avestan]] / Younger Avestan (extinct)<ref>"Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 2003-04, with further references)." in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921152517/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence |date=2023-09-21 }}</ref><ref>The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 1995; Witzel, 2000). We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran (the change of proto-Iranian *-āḭā/ă- > *-ayā/ă- and *ǰīwa- > *ǰuwa- “live,” for instance, is typical of Sogdian, Khotanese, Pashto, etc. in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921152517/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence |date=2023-09-21 }}).</ref> (extinct)
*******[[Young Avestan]] / Younger Avestan (extinct)<ref>"Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 2003-04, with further references)." in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921152517/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence |date=2023-09-21 }}</ref><ref>The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 1995; Witzel, 2000). We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran (the change of proto-Iranian *-āḭā/ă- > *-ayā/ă- and *ǰīwa- > *ǰuwa- "live," for instance, is typical of Sogdian, Khotanese, Pashto, etc. in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921152517/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence |date=2023-09-21 }}).</ref> (extinct)
*****[[Pakhto|Old Pakhto]]
*****[[Pakhto|Old Pakhto]]
******'''[[Pakhto language|Pakhto]]''' / '''[[Pashto Language|Pashto]]''' / '''Pathan'''
******'''[[Pakhto language|Pakhto]]''' / '''[[Pashto Language|Pashto]]''' / '''Pathan'''
Line 1,729: Line 2,458:
******'''[[Parachi]]'''
******'''[[Parachi]]'''
*****[[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] (extinct)<ref>It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya (1983), "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), ''Cambridge History of Iran'', vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.</ref>
*****[[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] (extinct)<ref>It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya (1983), "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), ''Cambridge History of Iran'', vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.</ref>
*****'''[[Munji language|Munji]]'''
*****[[Pamir languages]]
******''[[Munji language|Northern Munji]]''
******[[Yidgha-Munji people|Yidgha-Munji branch]]
******''[[Munji language|Southern Munji]]''
*******'''[[Munji language|Munji]]'''
*****'''[[Yidgha language|Yidgha]]'''
********''[[Munji language|Northern Munji]]''
*****[[Sarghulami]] (extinct)
********''[[Munji language|Southern Munji]]''
******[[Vanji language|Vanji]] / [[Old Wanji]] (extinct)
*******'''[[Yidgha language|Yidgha]]'''
******'''[[Yazghulami language|Yazgulyam]]'''
*******[[Sarghulami]] (extinct)
*****'''[[Rushani]]'''
******[[Pamir languages|North Pamir branch]]
*****'''[[Shughni language|Shughni]]''' / '''Khughni'''
*******[[Vanji language|Vanji]] / [[Old Wanji]] (extinct)
******''[[Bartangi language|Bartangi]]''
*******'''[[Yazghulami language|Yazgulyam]]'''
******''[[Khufi language|Khufi]]''
*******[[Darwozi]]<ref name="morgen">{{cite book
******''[[Oroshori dialect|Oroshori]]''
| last = Morgenstierne
******''[[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]]'' / ''[[Tashkorghani language|Tashkorghani]]''
| first = Georg
*****[[Sanglechi-Ishkashimi]] / [[Zebaki]]<ref name="Antje Wendtland 2009">Antje Wendtland (2009), The position of the Pamir languages within East Iranian, Orientalia Suecana LVIII "The Pamir languages are a group of East Iranian languages which are linguistically quite diverse and cannot be traced back to a common ancestor. The term Pamir languages is based on their geographical position rather than on their genetic closeness. Exclusive features by which the Pamir languages can be distinguished from all other East Iranian languages cannot be found either."</ref>
| title = Etymological Vocabulary of the Shughni Group
******'''[[Sanglechi language|Sanglechi]]'''
| publisher = Norsk Videnskaps-Akademi
******'''[[Ishkashimi language|Ishkashimi]]'''
| location = Oslo
*****'''[[Wakhi language|Wakhi]]'''   <ref name="Antje Wendtland 2009" />
| year = 1974
| page = 34
| quote = The Darwozi dialect of Tajik preserves words such as ''fraun kardan'' ("to pour water on") and ''frakondan'' ("to wash, rinse"), which are probably borrowed from the Shughni group (ŠGr), cf. Shughni ''firêwtow'' ("to wash, rinse").
}}</ref>
******[[Pamir languages|Shughni-Rushani branch]]
*******'''[[Rushani]]'''
********''[[Bartangi language|Bartangi]]''
*******'''[[Shughni language|Shughni]]''' / '''Khughni'''
********''[[Khufi language|Khufi]]''
********''[[Oroshori dialect|Oroshori]]''
*******'''[[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]]''' / '''[[Tashkorghani language|Tashkorghani]]'''
******[[Sanglechi-Ishkashimi]]
*******'''[[Sanglechi language|Sanglechi / Zebaki]]'''
*******'''[[Ishkashimi language|Ishkashimi]]'''
******'''[[Wakhi language|Wakhi]]''' {{efn|The inclusion of Wakhi among the Pamir languages is debated. Some scholars place it within the Pamir branch, others relate it more closely to Saka.<ref name="wakhi-debated">{{cite web
| last = Endangered Language Alliance
| title = Wakhi
| publisher = Endangered Language Alliance
| quote = "Wakhi is usually classified as a Pamir language ... but its relationship to the Pamiri group has been questioned by more recent work."
| url = https://www.elalliance.org/languages/wakhi
| access-date = 2025-09-08
}}</ref>}}
**[[Western Iranian languages]]
**[[Western Iranian languages]]
***[[List of Northwestern Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian languages]] / [[Northwestern Iranian|Northern Western Iranian]]
***[[List of Northwestern Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian languages]] / [[Northwestern Iranian|Northern Western Iranian]]
Line 1,799: Line 2,549:
****'''[[Judeo-Golpaygani]]''' (extinct)
****'''[[Judeo-Golpaygani]]''' (extinct)
****'''[[Gazi language|Gazi]]'''
****'''[[Gazi language|Gazi]]'''
*****''[[Jarquya’i]]''
*****''[[Jarquya'i]]''
*****''[[Judeo-Esfahani]]''
*****''[[Judeo-Esfahani]]''
****'''[[Soi language|Soi]]''' / '''Sohi'''
****'''[[Soi language|Soi]]''' / '''Sohi'''
Line 1,904: Line 2,654:


===[[Indo-Aryan languages]]===
===[[Indo-Aryan languages]]===
[[File:Indo-Aryan language map.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Present-day geographical distribution of the major '''Indo-Aryan language groups'''. [[Romani language|Romani]], [[Domari language|Domari]], [[Kholosi language|Kholosi]] and [[Lomavren language|Lomavren]] are outside the scope of the map. Colours indicate the branches – yellow is '''Eastern''', purple is '''Dardic''', blue is '''Northwestern''', red is '''Southern''', green is '''Western''', brown is '''Northern''' and orange is '''Central'''. Data is from [https://medium.com/@ArainGang/the-indo-aryan-languages-b249d5ece305 "The Indo Aryan Languages"] as well as census data and previous linguistic maps.'''[[Dardic languages|Dardic]]'''
[[File:Indo-Aryan language map.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Present-day geographical distribution of the major '''Indo-Aryan language groups'''. [[Romani language|Romani]], [[Domari language|Domari]], [[Kholosi language|Kholosi]] and [[Lomavren language|Lomavren]] are outside the scope of the map. Colours indicate the branches – yellow is '''Eastern''', purple is '''Dardic''', blue is '''Northwestern''', red is '''Southern''', green is '''Western''', brown is '''Northern''' and orange is '''Central'''. Data is from [https://medium.com/@ArainGang/the-indo-aryan-languages-b249d5ece305 "The Indo Aryan Languages"] as well as census data and previous linguistic maps.
{{legend|#FFD6F6|[[Pashai languages|Pashai]] }}
<br />
'''[[Dardic languages|Dardic]]'''{{legend|#FFD6F6|[[Pashai languages|Pashai]] }}
{{legend|#FFACEF|[[Chitral languages|Chitrali]] }}
{{legend|#FFACEF|[[Chitral languages|Chitrali]] }}
{{legend|#FF81E6|[[Shina languages|Shina]] }}
{{legend|#FF81E6|[[Shina languages|Shina]] }}
Line 1,927: Line 2,678:
{{legend|#D50000|[[Marathi-Konkani languages|Marathi-Konkani]] }}
{{legend|#D50000|[[Marathi-Konkani languages|Marathi-Konkani]] }}
{{legend|#AC0000|[[Sinhala-Maldivian languages|Sinhala-Maldivian]] }}
{{legend|#AC0000|[[Sinhala-Maldivian languages|Sinhala-Maldivian]] }}
.]]
]]
[[File:Indo-Aryan languages grouped.png|thumb|250px|Distribution of major [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] languages. [[w:Urdu|Urdu]] is included under [[Hindi]]. [[w:Romani language|Romani]], [[w:Domari language|Domari]], and [[w:Lomavren language|Lomavren]] are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where [[w:multilingualism|multilingualism]] is common.
[[File:Indo-Aryan languages grouped.png|thumb|250px|Distribution of major [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] languages. [[w:Urdu|Urdu]] is included under [[Hindi]]. [[w:Romani language|Romani]], [[w:Domari language|Domari]], and [[w:Lomavren language|Lomavren]] are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where [[w:multilingualism|multilingualism]] is common.
{{legend|#fd15ac|[[w:Dardic languages|Dardic]]}}
{{legend|#fd15ac|[[w:Dardic languages|Dardic]]}}
Line 1,947: Line 2,698:
******[[Dardic languages|Dardic]]
******[[Dardic languages|Dardic]]
*******[[Gandhari language|Gandhari Prakrit]] (extinct)
*******[[Gandhari language|Gandhari Prakrit]] (extinct)
********[[Niya Prakrit]]<ref name="cordis.europa.eu"/><ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit|jstor = 608051|url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/608051|last1 = Burrow|first1 = T.|journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London|year = 1936|volume = 8|issue = 2/3|pages = 419–435|doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00141060|s2cid = 170991822|access-date = 2021-04-25|archive-date = 2023-07-19|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230719144520/https://www.jstor.org/stable/608051|url-status = live|url-access = subscription}}</ref> / Kroraina Prakrit / Niya Gāndhārī (extinct)
********[[Niya Prakrit]]<ref name="cordis.europa.eu"/><ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit|jstor = 608051|last1 = Burrow|first1 = T.|journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London|year = 1936|volume = 8|issue = 2/3|pages = 419–435|doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00141060|s2cid = 170991822}}</ref> / Kroraina Prakrit / Niya Gāndhārī (extinct)
********[[Chitral languages]]
********[[Chitral languages]]
*********'''[[Kalasha-mun language|Kalasha-mun]]'''
*********'''[[Kalasha-mun language|Kalasha-mun]]'''
Line 1,992: Line 2,743:
**********''[[Kolai]]''
**********''[[Kolai]]''
*********'''[[Brokskat language|Brokskat]]''' / '''[[Brokskat|Dah-Hanu]]'''
*********'''[[Brokskat language|Brokskat]]''' / '''[[Brokskat|Dah-Hanu]]'''
*********'''[[Domaaki language|Domaaki]]''' / '''Dumaki'''
*********'''[[Domaaki language|Domaaki]]''' / '''Dumaki''' / '''Dawoodi'''
******[[North-Western Indo-Aryan languages|North-Western Indo-Aryan]]
******[[North-Western Indo-Aryan languages|North-Western Indo-Aryan]]
*******'''[[Punjabi languages]]'''
*******'''[[Punjabi languages]]'''
Line 2,024: Line 2,775:
***********''[[Chenavari]]''
***********''[[Chenavari]]''
************''[[Majhi dialect|Majhi]]''
************''[[Majhi dialect|Majhi]]''
**********'''[[Eastern Punjabi language|Eastern Punjabi]]'''
**********'''[[Punjabi dialects#Eastern_Punjabi|Eastern Punjabi]]'''
***********''[[Doabi]]''
***********''[[Doabi]]''
***********''[[Puadhi dialect|Puadhi]]'' / ''Pawadhi'' / [[Poadhi]]
***********''[[Puadhi dialect|Puadhi]]'' / ''Pawadhi'' / [[Poadhi]]
Line 2,295: Line 3,046:
**********'''[[Varli language|Varli]]'''
**********'''[[Varli language|Varli]]'''
*********Konkanic
*********Konkanic
**********'''[[Canarese Konkani]]'''
**********'''Canarese Konkani'''
**********'''[[Konkani language|Konkani]]'''
**********'''[[Konkani language|Konkani]]'''
**********'''[[Maharashtri Konkani]]'''
**********'''[[Maharashtri Konkani]]'''
Line 2,319: Line 3,070:
==Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)==
==Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)==
'''Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear'''
'''Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear'''
*[[Albanoid]]?
**[[Dardani#Language|Dardanian]]
**[[Illyrian language|Illyrian]]
**[[Messapic language|Messapic]]
*[[Ancient Belgian language|Ancient Belgian]]
*[[Ancient Belgian language|Ancient Belgian]]
*[[Asii|Assinean]]
*Asinean / Osian / Issedonian / Wusun?
*[[Cimmerians#Language|Cimmerian]]
**[[Asii|Asinean]] / Osian
**[[Issedones|Issedonian]]
**[[Wusun#Language|Wusun]]
*Brygian-Phrygian-Mygdonian?
**Brygian-Phrygian
***[[Brygian language|Brygian]]
***[[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]
**[[Mygdonia]]n
*[[Daco-Thracian]]
*[[Daco-Thracian]]
**[[Dacian language|Dacian]]
**[[Dacian language|Dacian]]
**[[Thracian language|Thracian]]
**[[Thracian language|Thracian]]
*[[Dardani#Language|Dardanian]]
*[[Elymian language|Elymian]]
*[[Gelonians#Language|Gelonian]]
*[[Gelonians#Language|Gelonian]]
*[[Jushi Kingdom|Gushiean]]
*Gushiean-Yuezhian?
*[[Illyrian language|Illyrian]]
**[[Jushi Kingdom|Gushiean]]
**[[Yuezhi|Yuezhian]]
*[[Liburnian language|Liburnian]]
*[[Liburnian language|Liburnian]]
*[[Ligurian language (ancient)|Ligurian]]
*[[Ligurian language (ancient)|Ligurian]]
*[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]
*[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]
*[[Messapic language|Messapic]]
*Moesian-Mysian-Paeonian-Mushkian?
*[[Moesian]]
**Moesian-Mysian-Paeonian?
*[[Mushki]]an
***[[Moesian]]
*[[Mygdonia]]n?
***[[Mysian language|Mysian]]
*[[Mysian language|Mysian]]
***[[Paeonian language|Paeonian]]
*[[Paeonian language|Paeonian]]
**[[Mushki]]an
*[[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]
*[[Siculian language|Siculian]]
*[[Siculian language|Siculian]]
*[[Venetic language|Venetic]]
*[[Venetic language|Venetic]]
*[[Wusun#Language|Wusun]]


==Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)==
==Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)==
'''Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families''' (?)
'''Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families''' (?)
*[[Cypro-Minoan syllabary|Cypro-Minoan]]
*[[Cypro-Minoan syllabary|Cypro-Minoan]]
*[[Elymian language|Elymian]]
*[[Eteocypriot language|Eteocypriot]]
*[[Eteocypriot]]
*[[Kaskian language|Kaskian]]
*[[Kaskian language|Kaskian]]
*[[Lullubi#Language|Lullubian]]
*[[Mannaea#Language|Mannaean]]
*[[Mannaea#Language|Mannaean]]
*[[Minoan language|Minoan]]
*[[Minoan language|Minoan]]
**[[Eteocretan]]
**[[Eteocretan language|Eteocretan]]
*[[Paleo-Corsican language|Paleo-Corsican]]
*[[Paleo-Corsican language|Paleo-Corsican]]
*[[Paleo-Sardinian language|Paleo-Sardinian]]
*[[Paleo-Sardinian language|Paleo-Sardinian]]
*[[Philistine language|Philistine]]
*[[Philistine language|Philistine Indo-European]]
*[[Sicanian language|Sicanian]]
*[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]
*[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]
*[[Trojan language|Trojan]]
*[[Trojan language|Trojan]]
Line 2,360: Line 3,122:
==See also==
==See also==
*[[List of Pidgins, Creoles, Mixed languages and Cants based on Indo-European languages]]
*[[List of Pidgins, Creoles, Mixed languages and Cants based on Indo-European languages]]
*[[Proto-Human language|Proto-Human]]
*[[Indo-Hittite]]
*[[Borean languages]]
*[[Nostratic]]
*[[Eurasiatic]]
*[[Uralo-Siberian]]
*[[Indo-Uralic]]
*[[Indo-Anatolian]] ([[Indo-Hittite]])
*[[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]]
*[[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]]
*[[Daco-Thracian]]
*[[Daco-Thracian]]
Line 2,374: Line 3,130:
*[[Thraco-Illyrian]]
*[[Thraco-Illyrian]]
*[[Italo-Celtic]]
*[[Italo-Celtic]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 14:53, 20 December 2025

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File:Indo-European distribution.svg
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  An Indo-European language is the majority native language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  An Indo-European language is a co-official and majority native language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  An Indo-European language is an official but minority native language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  An Indo-European language is a cultural or secondary language
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  An Indo-European language is not widely spoken
File:Indo-European branches map.svg
The approximate present-day distribution of the Indo-European branches within their homelands of Europe and Asia: <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Albanian
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Armenian
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Balto-Slavic (Baltic)
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  Balto-Slavic (Slavic)
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  Celtic
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Germanic
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Hellenic (Greek)
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani)
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Italic (Romance)
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Non-Indo-European languages
Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
File:Map-Romance Language World.png
Romance languages in the world
File:Languages of North America.svg
The approximate present-day distribution of Indo-European languages within the Americas by country:
Romance: <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Spanish
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Portuguese
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  French
Germanic: <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  English
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Dutch

Script error: No such module "sidebar". This is a list of languages in the Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.

Numbers of languages and language groups

The Indo-European languages include some 449 (SIL estimate, 2018 edition[1]) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in Europe, and western and southern Asia, belong to the Indo-European language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers. Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch. The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the SIL estimate, 2018 edition,[1] are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.

Definition of language

The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect. Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.

Summary of historical development

The ancestral population and language, Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through migration and cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, acculturation and language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern Eurasia.[2] This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family. By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern Eurasia (including western Central Asia). In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further. Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement. However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to North Asia (Siberia), through Russian expansion, and North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand as the result of the age of European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.) The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of European colonization, also gave origin to the many pidgins, creoles and mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).

Proto-Indo-European

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Dating the split-offs of the main branches

File:Indo-European Migrations. Source David Anthony (2007), The Horse, The Wheel and Language.jpg
Indo-European migrations as described in The Horse, the Wheel, and Language by David W. Anthony

Although all Indo-European languages descend from a common ancestor called Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated. However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened.[3] Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:[4]

David W. Anthony, following the methodology of Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow, proposes the following sequence:[4]

The list below follows Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.[5] quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press. The Indo-European phylogenetic tree of subfamilies or branches is also based in Chang, Chundra & Hall 2015, pp. 199–200 and Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241.

Anatolian languages (all extinct)

File:Anatolian Languages in 2nd millennium BC.jpg
Anatolian languages in 2nd millennium BC; Blue: Luwian, Yellow: Hittite, Red: Palaic.

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Unclassified (within Anatolian)

Possibly Anatolian

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Tocharian languages (Agnean-Kuchean) (all extinct)

File:Tocharian languages.svg
Tocharian languages: A (blue), B (red) and C (green) in the Tarim Basin.[11] Tarim oasis towns are given as listed in the Book of Han (c. 2nd century BC). The areas of the squares are proportional to population.

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Armenian language

File:Armenian dialects, Adjarian 1909.png
Armenian dialects, according to Adjarian (1909) (before 1st World War and Armenian Genocide). In many regions of the contiguous area shown in the map, Armenian speakers were the majority or a significant minority.
File:MAPArmenian.png
Modern geographical distribution of the Armenian language.

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  • Proto-Armenian (extinct)
    • Classical Armenian (գրաբար - grabar) (Old Armenian)
      • Liturgical Armenian
      • Middle Armenian (Միջին հայերէն - Miǰin Hayerēn) / Cilician Armenian (կիլիկեան հայերէն - Kilikyan Hayerēn)
        • Modern Armenian (աշխարհաբար - Ashkharhabar)
          • Armenian (հայերեն - Hayerēn) (Broad Armenian) (dialect continuum)
            • Armenian Standards
              • Eastern Armenian (Արեւելահայերեն - Arevelahayerēn)
              • Western Armenian (Արեւմտահայերէն - Arevmdahayerēn)
            • Armenian dialects[16]
              • Eastern Armenian (dialect continuum)
                • -owm dialects
                  • Araratian
                    • Yerevan
                      • Modern Eastern Armenian Standard
                  • Jugha / Julfa
                  • Zok[17][18] (could be a distinct armenian language)
                    • Agulis
                    • Meghri
                  • Artsakh / Karabagh Armenian
                  • Eastern Armenian dialects in the diaspora
                    • Tiflis / Tbilisi Armenian
                    • Shamakha (nearly extinct)
                    • Astrakhan Armenian (extinct)
                    • Iranian Armenian dialect (Persian Armenian - պարսկահայերէն - Parskahayerēn)
                      • Northwest Iran Armenian
                        • Tabriz Armenian (Tavrezh)
                      • North Iran Armenian
                        • Tehran Armenian
                      • Central Iran Armenian
                • -el dialects
                  • Ardvin / Tayk
                  • Nor Shirakan
                    • Khoy
                    • Maragha
              • Western Armenian (dialect continuum)
                • -gë dialects
                  • Karin (Erzurum Armenian) / Upper Armenia (Bardzr Hayk')
                  • Turuberan
                  • Van / Vaspurakan
                    • Torfavan
                  • Tigranakert / Aghdznik (Arzanene) (nearly extinct)
                  • Kharpert-Yerznka / (Tsopk') (nearly extinct)
                  • Shabin–Karahisar
                  • Trapizon / Trabzon Armenian (nearly extinct)
                  • Malatia (extinct)
                    • Adiyaman
                  • Cilician Armenian (nearly extinct)
                  • Sueidia / Syrian Armenian
                    • Vakıflı
                    • Kessab
                    • Latakia
                    • Jisr al-Shughur
                    • Anjar
                  • Arabkir (almost extinct)
                  • Akn (almost extinct)
                  • Sebastia / Sivas Armenian (nearly extinct)
                  • Tokat (almost extinct)
                  • Western Armenian dialects in the diaspora
                    • West Anatolia diaspora
                      • Nicomedia / Izmit Armenian
                      • Constantinople / Istanbul Armenian (nearly extinct)
                      • Rodosto / Tekirdağ Armenian (extinct)
                      • Smyrna / Izmir Armenian
                    • Black Sea diaspora
                      • Crimean Armenian
                    • Levant diaspora
                      • Kaghakatsi / Jerusalem Armenian (Armenian Quarter)
                    • European diaspora
                      • Austria-Hungary (extinct)
                    • North American diaspora
                    • South American diaspora
                    • Australian diaspora
                  • Homshetsi[19] (could be a distinct archaic armenian language)

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Hellenic languages

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File:Modern Greek dialects.png
Modern Greek dialects until 1923[20]
File:Anatolian Greek dialects.png
Anatolian Greek until 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian-Greek-speaking villages in 1910.[21]
File:Modern Greek dialects en.svg
The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas.

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Albanian language

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File:Albanian dialects.svg
Distribution of modern Albanian dialects.

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  • Proto-Albanian (extinct)
    • Albanian (Modern Albanian) (shqip / gjuha shqipe) (dialect continuum)
      • Albanian dialects[31][32]
        • Gheg Albanian (gegnisht) (Northern Albanian dialect)
          • Northern Gheg
            • Northwestern Gheg
              • Malësia
              • Kraja
              • Shkodër and Lezhë
            • Northeastern Gheg
              • East Drin basin
              • Nikaj and Mertur
              • Tropoja
              • Kosovë and Metohi / Kosovo Albanian
          • Central / Middle Gheg
          • Southern Gheg
        • Tosk Albanian (toskërisht) (Southern Albanian dialect) (basis of Standard Albanian)
          • Northern Tosk
            • Northwest Tosk
              • Berat
              • Skrapar
              • Vlora
            • Northeast Tosk
              • Opar
              • Devoll
              • Korçë
            • Southeast
            • Middle Vjosa
            • Northern Tosk diaspora
          • Southern Tosk
            • Lab (Labërishtja)
              • East Drinos Valley
              • Bregdeti i Poshtëm
              • Vurg of Delvina
            • Cham (Çamërishte)
              • Souliot Cham (extinct)
          • Transitional Northern-Southern Tosk / Tosk diaspora

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Italic languages

File:Iron Age Italy.png
Iron Age Italy (c.500 B.C.). Italic languages in green colours.
File:Map Length of Roman Rule Neo Latin Languages.jpg
Length of the Roman rule and the Romance Languages[33]
File:Romance languages.png
Romance languages in Europe (major dialect groups are also shown).
File:Romance 20c en.png
European extent of Romance languages in the 20th century
File:Western and Eastern Romania.PNG
Eastern and Western Romance areas split by the La Spezia–Rimini Line; Southern Romance is represented by Sardinian as an outlier.
File:Map-Romance Language World.png
Romance languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Romance languages are spoken. Dark colours: First language, Light colours: Official or Co-Official language; Very Light colours: Spoken by a significant minority as first or second language. Blue: French; Green: Spanish; Orange: Portuguese; Yellow: Italian; Red: Romanian.

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Celtic languages

File:Celts in Europe.png
Diachronic distribution of Celtic language speakers:
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BCE
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BCE
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Lusitanian and Vettonian area of Iberian Peninsula where Celtic presence is uncertain, Para-Celtic?
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  the six Celtic nations which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the Early Modern period
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today
File:A map of the distribution of the Celtic languages.svg
A map of the modern distribution of the Celtic languages. Red: Welsh; Purple: Cornish; Black: Breton; Green: Irish; Blue: Scottish Gaelic: Yellow: Manx. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.

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Germanic languages

File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png
Germanic languages and main dialect groups in Europe after 1945.
File:Germanic languages.svg
Germanic languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Germanic languages are spoken. Dark Red: First language; Red: Official or Co-Official language, Pink: Spoken by a significant minority as second language.

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Balto-Slavic languages

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File:Balto-Slavic lng.png
Area of Balto-Slavic dialect continuum with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age . Red dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.
File:Balto Slavic countries.svg
Political map of Europe with countries where a Slavic language is a national language marked in shades of green and where a Baltic language is a national language marked in light orange. Wood green represents East Slavic languages, pale green represents West Slavic languages, and sea green represents South Slavic languages. Contemporary Baltic languages are all from the same group: Eastern Baltic
File:Baltic languages.png
Baltic languages (extinct languages shown in stripes).
File:Slavic languages map en.svg
Slavic languages in Europe . Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.
File:Idioma ruso.PNG
Russian Language – Map of all the areas where the Russian language is the language spoken by the majority of the population. Russian is the biggest Slavic language both in number of first language speakers and in geographical area where the language is spoken .

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Baltic languages

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Slavic languages

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Indo-Iranian languages

File:Lenguas indoiranias.PNG
Geographic distribution of modern Indo-Iranian languages. Blue, dark purple and green colour shades: Iranic languages. Dark pink: Nuristani languages. Red, light purple and orange colour shades: Indo-Aryan languages. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.

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Iranian languages

File:Map of Attested and Hypothetical Old Indo-Iranian Dialects.png
Map of Attested and Hypothetical Old Indo-Iranian Dialects. Indo-Iranian languages descend from the language spoken by the Sintashta Culture people that lived in the plains beyond the southeast Ural Mountains, between the upper Ural and Tobol rivers basins. Old Iranian languages, were spoken in a large Eurasian landmass area that included most of south Eastern Europe, south west Siberia, Central Asia, including parts of western China, and the Iranian Plateau. The Scythian languages, that belonged to the Northern Eastern Iranian languages subgroup, were the ones with the biggest geographical distribution, they were spoken in most of the steppe and desert areas of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, matching most of the western half of the Eurasian steppe, which corresponds to modern southern European Russia and south Russian west Siberia and parts of southern central Siberia, modern southern Ukraine, an enclave in the east Pannonian Basin, in modern Hungary, all of modern Kazakhstan, parts of modern Xinjiang, in Western China, modern Kyrgyzstan, and parts of modern Uzbekistan and modern Turkmenistan.[47] Later Scythian languages were also present in northern India by migration of part of the ancient Iranian peoples forming the Indo-Scythians. This was the geographical distribution until the first centuries A.D., after that time, Turkic migration and conquests along with Turkification, made many ancient Iranian languages go extinct.
File:Distribution of Iranian Languages.png
Distribution of modern Iranian Languages

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Nuristani languages

File:Nuristan in Afghanistan.svg
Nuristan Province in Afghanistan, where most speakers live.
File:MAPNuristani.png
Nuristani languages.

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Indo-Aryan languages

File:Indo-Aryan language map.svg
Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. Romani, Domari, Kholosi and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map. Colours indicate the branches – yellow is Eastern, purple is Dardic, blue is Northwestern, red is Southern, green is Western, brown is Northern and orange is Central. Data is from "The Indo Aryan Languages" as well as census data and previous linguistic maps.
Dardic<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Pashai
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Chitrali
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Shina
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Kohistani
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Kashmiri
Northwestern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Punjabi
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Sindhi
Western <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Rajasthani
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Gujarati
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Bhili
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Khandeshi
Northern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Himachali-Dogri
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Garhwali-Kumaoni
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Nepali
Central <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Western Hindi
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Eastern Hindi
Eastern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Bihari
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Bengali-Assamese
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Odia
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Halbi
Southern <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Marathi-Konkani
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Sinhala-Maldivian
File:Indo-Aryan languages grouped.png
Distribution of major Indo-Aryan languages. Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common. <templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Dardic
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Northwestern
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Northern
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Western
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Central
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Eastern
<templatestyles src="Legend/styles.css" />
  Southern
File:Romany dialects Europe.svg
Romani languages and dialects in Europe. Romani languages are part of the Indo-Aryan branch of Indo-European languages but are spoken out of the Indian Subcontinent. They are related to the Domari languages and are scattered and minority languages in all regions, overlapping with other peoples and their languages in Europe. The Domari and Romani languages are spoken in a vast geographical area from Southwest Asia to Europe and North Africa but are minoritary and scattered in all the regions in part because Domari and Romani speakers, the Doma and the Roma, were traditionally nomadic peoples.

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Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear

Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families (?)

See also

Notes

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References

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  1. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ KAPOVIĆ, Mate. (ed.) (2017). The Indo-European Languages. Template:ISBN
  4. ↑ a b Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press
  5. ↑ Ringe, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', Transactions of the Philological Society, n.º 100/1, 59-129.
  6. ↑ Kloekhorst, Alwin (2022). "Anatolian". In Olander, Thomas (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108758666. ISBN 978-1-108-49979-8. S2CID 161016819
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Tocharian Online: Series Introduction". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  13. ↑ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN.
  14. ↑ Voynikov, Zhivko. (?). Some ancient Chinese names in East Turkestan and Central Asia and the Tocharian question.
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Dolatian, Hossep (2024). Adjarian's Armenian dialectology (1911): Translation and commentary. Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-489-5.
  17. ↑ "A Documentation of the Zok Language (otherwise known as the Armenian dialect of Agulis) | Endangered Languages Archive". www.elararchive.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  18. ↑ Vaux, Bert (2007). Zok: The Armenian dialect of Agulis. p. 2.
  19. ↑ Bert Vaux, "Homshetsma, The language of the Armenians of Hamshen", in Hovann Simonian (2007). The Hemshin: History, Society and Identity in the Highlands of Northeast Turkey. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79830-7.
  20. ↑ Nikolaos G. Kontosopoulos, "Dialects and Idioms of the Modern Greek", Papyros-Larousse-Britannica (in Greek), 2007, pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-960-6715-39-6.
  21. ↑ Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  22. ↑ Horrocks, Geoffrey (2014). Greek: A history of the language and its speakers, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-78515-7.
  23. ↑ Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
  24. ↑ C.D. Buck, The Greek Dialects (1955)
  25. ↑ Hadodo, M. J. (2020). Cosmopolitan Constantinopolitans: Istanbul Greek Language and Identity [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. University of Pittsburgh Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences. 246 p.; 41-43. map
  26. ↑ Peter Trudgill (2003): Modern Greek dialects. A preliminary Classification. Journal of Greek Linguistics 4: 54–64
  27. ↑ Petros Karatsareas. (2013): Understanding diachronic change in Cappadocian Greek: The dialectological perspective. Journal of Historical Linguistics 3:2 (2013), 192–229. doi 10.1075/jhl.3.2.02kar
  28. ↑ Guardiano, Cristina; Stavrou, Melita (2019-06-12). "Adjective-Noun combinations in Romance and Greek of Southern Italy: Polydefiniteness revisited". Journal of Greek Linguistics. 19 (1): 3–57. doi:10.1163/15699846-01901001. hdl:11380/1188377. ISSN 1569-9846
  29. ↑ Nicholas, Nick (2019). "A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian". Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography. 1 (1): 18–68. doi:10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Adelina ÇERPJA and Anila ÇEPANI, "Albanian dialect classifications" in Dialectologia. Special issue, 11 (2023), 51-87. ISSN: 2013-2247
  32. ↑ Baldi, Benedetta; Savoia, Leonardo M. (2017). "Cultura e identità nella lingua albanese" [Culture and Identity in the Albanian Language]. LEA - Lingue e Letterature d'Oriente e d'Occidente. 6 (6): 45–77. doi:10.13128/LEA-1824-484x-22325. ISSN 1824-484X.
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Pellegrini G., Carta dei dialetti d'Italia, CNR – Pacini ed., Pisa, 1977
  35. ↑ a b Vignuzzi 1997: 312, 317; Loporcaro & Panciani 2016: 229, 233
  36. ↑ Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. (2005). Historia de la Lengua Española (2 Vols.). Madrid: Fundación Ramón Menendez Pidal. Template:ISBN
  37. ↑ Marcos Marín, Francisco. (1998). "Romance andalusí y mozárabe: dos términos no sinónimos", Estudios de Lingüística y Filología Españolas. Homenaje a Germán Colón. Madrid: Gredos, 335–341. https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_ Template:Webarchive
  38. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ "The medieval 'New England': A forgotten Anglo-Saxon colony on the north-eastern Black Sea coast" https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html Template:Webarchive
  41. ↑ Harm, Volker, "Elbgermanisch", "Weser-Rhein-Germanisch" und die Grundlagen des Althochdeutschen, in Nielsen; Stiles (eds.), Unity and Diversity in West Germanic and the Emergence of English, German, Frisian and Dutch, North-Western European Language Evolution, vol. 66, pp. 79–99
  42. ↑ C. A. M. Noble: Modern German Dialects. Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131
  43. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, "Holland, n. 1," etymology.
  44. ↑ Hendricks, Frank . "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".[1] Template:Webarchive Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery. 3 (2): 6–39. doi:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38. ISSN 2221-4216. S2CID 197552885.
  45. ↑ Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal: De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank:
    Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, entry VlamingI Template:Webarchive;
    cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek, entry flāmink Template:Webarchive: "Morfologie: afleiding, basiswoord : flāma 'overstroomd gebied'; suffix: ink 'vormt afstammingsnamen'"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek, entry Vlaendren Template:Webarchive: "Etymologie: Dat.pl. van flandr- 'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix -dr-.".
    Cognate to Middle English flēm 'current of a stream': Middle English Compendium → Middle English Dictionary : flēm n.(2) Template:Webarchive
  46. ↑ Christoph, Walther; Lasch, Agathe; Kuhn, Hans; Pretzel, Ulrich; Scheel, Käthe; Meier, Jürgen; Möhn, Dieter (1985–2006), Hamburgisches Wörterbuch (2 ed.), Neumünster: K. Wachholtz, OCLC 182559541
  47. ↑ Simpson, St John (2017). "The Scythians. Discovering the Nomad-Warriors of Siberia". Current World Archaeology. 84: 16–21. "nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages..."
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ "The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the Rigveda, and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Witzel, 1995)", quoted in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Template:Webarchive
  51. ↑ "Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 2003-04, with further references)." in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Template:Webarchive
  52. ↑ The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 1995; Witzel, 2000). We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran (the change of proto-Iranian *-āḭā/ă- > *-ayā/ă- and *ǰīwa- > *ǰuwa- "live," for instance, is typical of Sogdian, Khotanese, Pashto, etc. in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Template:Webarchive).
  53. ↑ It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya (1983), "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ See also: Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, 1981, p 278, These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119–20, K. S. Dardi etc.
  56. ↑ Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

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