Indigenous languages of the Americas

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Yucatec Maya writing in the Dresden Codex, c.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".11–12th century, Chichen Itza

The Indigenous languages of the Americas are the languages that were used by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, before the arrival of Europeans. Over a thousand of these languages are still used in the 21st century, while many more are now extinct. The Indigenous languages of the Americas are not all related to each other; instead, they are classified into a hundred or so language families and isolates, as well as several extinct languages that are unclassified due to the lack of information on them.

Many proposals have been made to relate some or all of these languages to each other, with varying degrees of success. The most widely reported is Joseph Greenberg's Amerind hypothesis;[1] however, nearly all specialists reject it because of severe methodological flaws; spurious data; and a failure to distinguish cognation, contact, and coincidence.[2]

According to UNESCO, most of the Indigenous languages of the Americas are critically endangered, and many are dormant (without native speakers but with a community of heritage-language users) or entirely extinct.[3][4] The most widely spoken Indigenous languages are Southern Quechua (spoken primarily in southern Peru and Bolivia) and Guarani (centered in Paraguay, where it shares national language status with Spanish), with perhaps six or seven million speakers apiece (including many of European descent in the case of Guarani). Only half a dozen others have more than a million speakers; these are Aymara of Bolivia and Nahuatl of Mexico, with almost two million each; the Mayan languages Kekchi and K'iche' of Guatemala and Yucatec of Mexico, with about 1 million apiece; and perhaps one or two additional Quechuan languages in Peru and Ecuador. In the United States, 372,000 people reported speaking an Indigenous language at home in the 2010 census.[5] In Canada, 133,000 people reported speaking an Indigenous language at home in the 2011 census.[6] In Greenland, about 90% of the population speaks Greenlandic, the most widely spoken Eskaleut language.

Background

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". Over a thousand known languages were spoken by various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans. These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Norse settlements in Greenland and failed efforts in Newfoundland and Labrador) and the end of the 15th century (the voyages of Christopher Columbus). Several Indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems,[7] the best known being the Maya script.[8] The Indigenous languages had widely varying demographics, from the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl, which had millions of active speakers, to many languages with only several hundred speakers. After pre-Columbian times, several Indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas, based on European, Indigenous and African languages.

The European colonizing nations and their successor states had widely varying attitudes towards Native American languages. In Brazil, friars learned and promoted the Tupi language.[9] In many Spanish colonies, Spanish missionaries often learned local languages and culture in order to preach to the natives in their own tongue and relate the Christian message to their Indigenous religions. In the British American colonies, John Eliot of the Massachusetts Bay Colony made a Bible translation in the Massachusett language, also called Wampanoag, or Natick (1661–1663); it was the first Bible printed in North America, the Eliot Indian Bible.

The Europeans also suppressed use of Indigenous languages, establishing their own languages for official communications, destroying texts in other languages, and insisted that Indigenous people learn European languages in schools. As a result, Indigenous languages suffered from cultural suppression and loss of speakers. By the 18th and 19th centuries, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch, brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, had become the official or national languages of modern nation-states of the Americas.

Many Indigenous languages have become critically endangered, but others are vigorous and part of daily life for millions of people. Several have been given official status in the countries where they occur, such as Guarani in Paraguay. In other cases official status is limited to certain regions where the languages are most spoken. Although sometimes enshrined in constitutions as official, the languages may be used infrequently in de facto official use. Examples are Quechua in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia, where in practice, Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts.

In the North American Arctic region, Greenland in 2009 elected Kalaallisut[10] as its sole official language. In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language, with more than 200,000 speakers in the Southwestern United States. The US Marine Corps recruited Navajo men, who were established as code talkers during World War II.

Origins

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (1997), Lyle Campbell lists several hypotheses for the historical origins of Amerindian languages.[11]

  • A single, one-language migration (not widely accepted)
  • A few linguistically distinct migrations (favored by Edward Sapir)
  • Multiple migrations
  • Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages)
  • The influx of already diversified but related languages from the Old World
  • Extinction of Old World linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived)
  • Migration along the Pacific coast instead of by the Bering Strait

Roger Blench (2008) has advocated the theory of multiple migrations along the Pacific coast of peoples from northeastern Asia, who already spoke diverse languages. These proliferated in the Americas.[12]

Numbers of speakers and political recognition

Countries like Mexico, Guatemala, and Guyana recognize most Indigenous languages. Bolivia and Venezuela give all Indigenous languages official status.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Canada, Argentina, and the US allow provinces and states to decide. Brazil limits recognition to localities. Colombia delegates Indigenous language recognition to its departments according to the Colombian Constitution of 1991. In Canada, Bill C-91: the Indigenous Languages Act passed in 2019, and supports Indigenous languages through sustainable funding and the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. The first Commissioner of Indigenous Languages in Canada is Ronald E. Ignace.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]

In the following table, languages marked with asterisks (*) have minority status. Political entities bestowing official language status are highlighted in bold. International and unrecognized organizations are in italics.

Widely-spoken and officially-recognized Indigenous languages
Language Number of speakers Official recognition Geographic distribution Source
Guarani Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil [20]
Southern Quechua Template:Sigfig (outdated)Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Template:Ubl Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, Chile [20]
Nahuatl Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [21]
Aymara Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Bolivia, Peru, Chile [20]
Q'eqchi' Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Belize, Mexico [20]
K'iche' Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico [20]
Yucatec Maya Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Mexico, Belize [22]
Ancash Quechua Template:Sigfig (outdated)Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Peru [20]
Mam Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico
Tzeltal Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Mexico [22]
Mixtec Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Tzotzil Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Mexico [22]
Zapotec Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Kichwa Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Ecuador, Colombia (Cauca, Nariño, Putumayo) [20]
Wayuu (Guajiro) Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Venezuela, Colombia
Kaqchikel Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico [20]
Otomi Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Totonac Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [24]
Mapuche Template:Sigfig Cautín, Araucanía, Chile (Galvarino and Padre Las Casas) Cautín, Araucanía, Chile and Argentina [20]
Ch'ol Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Mexico [22]
Mazateco Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Q'anjob'al Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico
Huasteco Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [22]
Navajo Template:Sigfig Navajo Nation, United States Southwestern US [20]
Mazahua Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Miskito Template:Sigfig (outdated)Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Template:Ubl Nicaragua, Honduras
Chinanteco Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Mixe Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [25]
Tlapaneco Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [23]
Poqomchi' Template:Sigfig Guatemala Guatemala
Purepecha/Tarasco Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico [26]
Achí Template:Sigfig Guatemala Guatemala
Ixil Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico
Yaru Quechua 100,000 (outdated)Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Peru [20]
Cree Template:Sigfig (including Naskapi and Montagnais) Canada:Template:Ubl Canada [27]
Tarahumara Template:Sigfig Mexico Mexico
Tz'utujil Template:Sigfig Guatemala Guatemala
Guna Template:Sigfig Colombia (Chocó and Antioquia) Colombia (Chocó, Antioquia), Panama (Guna Yala)
Paez 60,000 Colombia (Cauca, Huila, Valle del Cauca) Colombia (Cauca, Huila, Valle del Cauca)
Chuj 59,000 Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico
Kalaallisut (Greenlandic) 57,000 Greenland Greenland [28]
Amuzgo 55,588 Mexico Mexico
Tojolab'al 51,733 Template:Ubl Mexico
Garifuna 50,000 (circa; outdated) Guatemala|Belize|North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua|Honduras (Atlántida, Colón, Gracias a Dios) Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, Honduras [20]
Ojibwe Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Canada, United States [20]
Tikuna 47,000 Colombia (Leticia and Puerto Nariño, Amazonas) Amazonas regions of Brazil and Colombia [29]
Chatino 45,000 Mexico Mexico
Huichol 44,800 Mexico Mexico
Mayo 39,600 Mexico Mexico
Inuktitut 39,475 Template:Ubl Canada (Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Quebec, Labrador) [30]
Chontal Maya 37,072 Mexico Mexico
Wichi 36,135 Chaco, Argentina Chaco Province, Argentina
Tepehuán 36,000 Mexico Mexico
Soteapanec 35,050 Mexico Mexico
Shuar 35,000 Ecuador Ecuador [31]
Sikuani 34,000 Colombia (Meta, Vichada, Arauca, Guainía, Guaviare) Colombia (Meta, Vichada, Arauca, Guainía, Guaviare)
Jakaltek Template:Sigfig Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico
Kom 31,580 Chaco, Argentina Chaco Province, Argentina
Poqomam 30,000 Guatemala Guatemala
Ch'orti' 30,000 Guatemala Guatemala
Kaiwá 26,500 Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil [29]
Sioux 25,000 South Dakota, United States US [32]
O'odham 23,313 Template:Ubl Arizona, United States
Kaigang 22,000 Brazil [29]
Guambiano 21,000 Cauca, Colombia Cauca, Colombia
Cora 20,100 Mexico Mexico
Yanomamö 20,000 Venezuela Brazil, Venezuela [29]
Nheengatu 19,000 Template:Ubl Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela [32]
Yup'ik (Central Alaskan) and Yupik (Siberian) 18,626 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Huave 17,900 Mexico Mexico [33]
Yaqui 17,546 Mexico Mexico
Piaroa 17,000 Vichada, Colombia Vichada, Colombia
Sakapultek 15,000 Guatemala Guatemala
Western Apache 14,012 Template:Ubl Arizona, United States
Nivaclé 14,000 Paraguay (Chaco Region), Argentina (Salta Province)
Xavante 13,300 Mato Grosso, Brazil [29]
Keresan 13,073 New Mexico, United States
Cuicatec 13,000 Mexico Mexico
Awa Pit 13,000 Nariño, Colombia Nariño, Colombia
Karu (Baníwa) 12,000 Template:Ubl Guaviare, Colombia and Amazonas, Brazil
Awakatek 11,607 Template:Ubl Guatemala, Mexico
Chipewyan 11,325 Northwest Territories, Canada Northwest Territories, Canada [34]
Pame 11,000 Mexico Mexico
Wounaan 10,800 Colombia (Chocó, Cauca, Valle del Cauca) Colombia (Chocó, Cauca, Valle del Cauca)
Moxo 10,000 Bolivia Bolivia
Kogi 9,900 Magdalena, Colombia Magdalena, Colombia
Zuni 9,620 New Mexico, United States [35]
Choctaw 9,600 Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma Oklahoma and Mississippi, United States [36]
Guajajara 9,500 Maranhão, Brazil [29]
Sumo 9,000 North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua
Mopán 9,000–12,000 Template:Ubl Guatemala, Belize [37]
Tepehua 8,900 Mexico Mexico
Mawé 8,900 Brazil (Pará and Amazonas) [29]
Terêna 8,200 Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil [29]
Sipakapense 8,000 Guatemala Guatemala
Ika 8,000 Colombia (Cesar and Magdalena) Colombia (Cesar and Magdalena)
Mi'kmaq 7,140 Canada and United States
Tukano 7,100 Template:Ubl Amazonas, Brazil and Vaupés, Colombia [38]
Minica Huitoto 6,800 Amazonas, Colombia Amazonas, Colombia
Hopi 6,780 Arizona, United States [32]
Enlhet 6,400 Presidente Hayes, Paraguay
Piapoco 6,400 Colombia (Guainía, Vichada, Meta) Colombia (Guainía, Vichada, Meta)
Cubeo 6,300 Vaupés, Colombia Vaupés, Colombia
Kayapo 6,200 Brazil (Pará and Mato Grosso) [38]
Yukpa 6,000 Template:Ubl Venezuela, Colombia
Chiquitano 5,900 Bolivia Brazil and Bolivia
Guarayu 5,900 Bolivia Bolivia
Macushi 5,800 Template:Ubl Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana [38]
Chimané 5,300 Bolivia Bolivia
Tewa 5,123 New Mexico, United States
Timbira 5,100 Brazil (Maranhão, Tocantins, Pará) [39]
Sanumá 5,100 Venezuela Brazil and Venezuela [40]
Muscogee 5,072 Muscogee (Creek) Nation, Oklahoma, US United States (Oklahoma, Alabama, Florida) [36]
Chontal of Oaxaca 5,039 Mexico Oaxaca, Mexico [41]
Tektitek 5,000 Guatemala Guatemala
Barí 5,000 Colombia (Cesar and Norte de Santander) Colombia (Cesar and Norte de Santander)
Blackfoot 4,700 Alberta, Canada and Montana, United States [38]Template:Rp
Camsá 4,000 Putumayo, Colombia Putumayo, Colombia
Kulina 3,900 Brazil (Amazonas) and Peru [40]
Crow 3,862 Montana, United States
Mohawk 3,875 Mohawk Nation of Akwesasne, Canada Canada (Ontario and Quebec) and United States (New York) [42][43]
Kashinawa 3,588 Brazil and Peru
Munduruku 3,563 Pará and Amazonas, Brazil [40]
Tunebo/Uwa 3,550 Boyacá, Colombia Boyacá, Colombia
Ayoreo 3,160 Bolivia Bolivia, Paraguay
Desano 3,160 Bolivia Bolivia
Wapishana 3,154 Template:Ubl Bonfim, Roraima, Brazil, and Guyana [44][40]
Yaminawa 3,129 Bolivia Bolivia
Mocoví 3,000 Chaco, Argentina Chaco, Argentina
Iñupiaq 3,000 Template:Ubl Alaska, US and Northwest Territories, Canada
Puinave 3,000 Template:Ubl Guainía, Colombia and Venezuela
Cuiba 2,900 Colombia (Casanare, Vichada, Arauca Departments) Colombia (Casanare, Vichada, Arauca)
Tupi-Mondé 2,886 Rondônia, Brazil [40]
Yuracaré 2,700 Bolivia Bolivia
Wanano 2,600 Vaupés, Colombia Vaupés, Colombia
Shoshoni 2,512 US
Bora 2,400 Amazonas, Colombia Amazonas, Colombia
Cofán 2,400 Colombia (Nariño, Putumayo) Colombia (Nariño, Putumayo)
Kanamari 2,298 Amazonas, Brazil [40]
Fox (Mesquakie-Sauk-Kickapoo) 2,288 Template:Ubl US and Mexico
Cherokee 2,320 Template:Ubl US (Oklahoma and North Carolina)
Waiwai 2,217 Guyana Brazil, Guyana
Karajá 2,137 Brazil [40]
Huarijio 2,136 Mexico Mexico
Slavey 2,120 Northwest Territories, Canada Northwest Territories, Canada
Chichimeca 2,100 Mexico Mexico
Koreguaje 2,100 Caquetá, Colombia Caquetá, Colombia
Tiriyó 2,100 Brazil, Suriname
Xerente 2,051 Tocantins, Brazil [40]
Uspanteko 2,000 Guatemala Guatemala
Fulniô 1,871 Pernambuco, Brazil [40]
Pakaásnovos (Wari') 1,854 Rondônia, Brazil [40]
Wiwa 1,850 Cesar, Colombia Cesar, Colombia
Weenhayek 1,810 Bolivia Bolivia
Matlatzinca 1,800 Mexico Mexico
Tacana 1,800 Bolivia Bolivia
Tłįchǫ Yatiì 1,735 Northwest Territories, Canada Northwest Territories, Canada
Cavineña 1,700 Bolivia Bolivia
Jupda 1,700 Amazonas, Colombia Amazonas, Colombia
Zacatepec Mixtec 1,500 Mexico Mexico
Seneca 1,453 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, Ontario, Canada Ontario, Canada [32]
Movima 1,400 Bolivia Bolivia
Tlingit 1,360 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Inuinnaqtun 1,310 Template:Ubl Alaska, United States, and Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Canada
Kiowa 1,274 Oklahoma, United States
Ka'apor 1,241 Maranhão, Brazil [40]
Aleut 1,236 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Gwich'in 1,217 Template:Ubl Alaska, US and Northwest Territories, Canada
Inuvialuktun 1,150 Template:Ubl Nunavut and Northwest Territories, Canada
Arapaho 1,087 US
Macuna 1,032 Vaupés, Colombia Vaupés, Colombia
Guayabero 1,000 Colombia (Meta, Guaviare) Colombia (Meta, Guaviare)
Chocho 810 Mexico Mexico
Maricopa/Piipaash 800 Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community, Arizona, United States Arizona, United States
Rama 740 North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua
Seri 729 Mexico Mexico [45]
Ese Ejja 700 Bolivia Bolivia
Nukak 700 Guaviare, Colombia Guaviare, Colombia
Pima Bajo 650 Mexico Mexico
Cayuvava 650 Bolivia Bolivia
Chácobo-Pakawara 600 Bolivia Bolivia
Lacandon 600 Mexico Mexico
Oneida 574 Template:Ubl Ontario, Canada [43][46][47]
Cocopah 515 Mexico Mexico [48]
Sirionó 500 Bolivia Bolivia
Siona 500 Putumayo, Colombia Putumayo, Colombia
Havasupai–Hualapai 445 Havasupai Indian Reservation, Arizona, United States Arizona, United States [49]
Kumeyaay 427 (525 including Ipai and Tiipai languages) Template:Ubl Baja California, Mexico and California, US [50][51]
Tembé 420 Maranhão, Brazil [40]
Yurok 414 California, United States
Alutiiq (Sugpiaq) 400 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Tatuyo 400 Vaupés, Colombia Vaupés, Colombia
Andoque 370 Caquetá, Colombia Caquetá, Colombia
Guajá 365 Maranhão, Brazil
Chimila 350 Magdalena, Colombia Magdalena, Colombia
Koyukon 300 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Hitnü 300 Arauca, Colombia Arauca, Colombia
Mikasuki 290 Florida, United States (Georgia, Alabama, and Oklahoma (historical)) [36]
Quechan 290 Imperial County, California, United States (ballot recognition)* Yuma County, Arizona, United States (ballot recognition)* California, Arizona [52]
Cabiyari 270 Colombia (Mirití-Paraná and Amazonas) Colombia (Mirití-Paraná and Amazonas)
Reyesano 250 Bolivia Bolivia
Achagua 250 Meta, Colombia Meta, Colombia
Kakwa 250 Vaupés, Colombia Vaupés, Colombia
Yavapai 245 Arizona, United States [53]
Siriano 220 Vaupés, Colombia Vaupés, Colombia
Mojave 200 Arizona, United States [54]
Paipai 200 Mexico Mexico [50]
Toromono 200 Bolivia Bolivia
Ixcatec 190 Mexico Mexico
Ocaina 190 Amazonas, Colombia Amazonas, Colombia
Haida 168 Template:Ubl Alaska, United States and British Columbia, Canada
Muinane 150 Amazonas, Colombia Amazonas, Colombia
Deg Xinag 127 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Warázu 125 Bolivia Bolivia
Araona 110 Bolivia Bolivia
Upper Tanana 100 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Itene 90 Bolivia Bolivia
Ahtna 80 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Tsimshian 70 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Tanacross 65 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Cayuga 61 Template:Ubl Ontario, Canada and New York, US [55]
Dena'ina 50 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Onondaga 50 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, Ontario, Canada Ontario, Canada [32]
Bauré 40 Bolivia Bolivia
Upper Kuskokwim 40 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Tanana 30 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Ayapaneco 24 Mexico Mexico [25]
Leco 20 Bolivia Bolivia
Xincan 16 Guatemala Guatemala
Hän 12 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Holikachuk 12 Alaska, United States Alaska, United States
Comanche 9 United States
Carijona 6 Colombia (Amazonas, Guaviare) Colombia (Amazonas, Guaviare)
Itonama 5 Bolivia Bolivia
Kiliwa 4 Mexico Mexico
Selk'nam 1 Tierra del Fuego, Chile and Argentina (extinct) [56]
Nonuya 0 Amazonas, Colombia Colombia, Peru
Yahgan 0 Tierra del Fuego, Chile and Argentina (extinct)
Taíno languages 0 Formerly all of the Caribbean
Cochimí 0 Mexico (extinct, but retains recognition)
Kallawaya 0 Bolivia (extinct, but retains recognition)
Eyak 0 Alaska, United States (extinct, but retains recognition)
Tuscarora 0 Template:Ubl Ontario, Canada and New York, US [57]

Language families and unclassified languages

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Notes

  • Extinct languages or families are indicated by: †.
  • The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages).
  • For convenience, the following list of language families is divided into three sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, and South America) but are not equivalent. This division cannot fully delineate Indigenous culture areas.

Script error: No such module "anchor".Northern America

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File:Cherokee stop sign.png
Bilingual stop sign in English and the Cherokee syllabary (transcription: Script error: No such module "Lang"., 'Script error: No such module "Lang".'), Tahlequah, Oklahoma

There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) Indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified).Script error: No such module "Unsubst". The Na-Dené, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Na-Dené comes in second with approximately 200,000 speakers (nearly 180,000 of these are speakers of Navajo), and Algic in third with about 180,000 speakers (mainly Cree and Ojibwe). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the southwestern US and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-)family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain.

North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California. This area has 18 language families comprising 74 languages (compared to two indigenous families in Europe: Indo-European and Uralic, and one isolate, Basque).[58]

Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeastern Woodlands;Script error: No such module "Unsubst". however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". This diversity has influenced the development of linguistic theories and practice in the US.

Due to the diversity of languages in North America, it is difficult to make generalizations for the region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. three to five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for their complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels entirely).[59] The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afroasiatic languages and the languages of the Caucasus). Ejective consonants are also common in western North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and the Mayan family).

Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskaleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of the Tanoan languages, the lexical affixes of the Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan languages, and the unusual verb structure of Na-Dené.

The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999).

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Central America and Mexico

File:Pre-contact distribution language families Mexico.svg
Pre-contact distribution of native American languages in New Spain (Mexico, Southwest US, Central America)
File:Map of the languages of Mexico.png
The Indigenous languages of Mexico that have more than 100,000 speakers todayScript error: No such module "Unsubst".
File:Chibcha lang.png
The Chibchan languages

In Central America the Mayan languages are among those used today. Mayan languages are spoken by at least six million Indigenous Maya, primarily in Guatemala, Mexico, Belize and Honduras. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognizes eight more. The Mayan language family is one of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 4,000 years ago; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method. Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

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South America and the Caribbean

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File:SouthAmerican families 03.png
Some of the greater families of South America: dark spots are language isolates or quasi-isolate, grey spots unclassified languages or languages with doubtful classification. (Note that Quechua, the family with the most speakers, is not displayed.)
File:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg
A Urarina shaman, 1988

Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and several hundred more spoken at first contact but now extinct. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal:

Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem.

It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that areaTemplate:Spaced ndashmuch smaller than SA, to be sureTemplate:Spaced ndashis in general much better documented than any part of Indigenous SA of comparable size.

As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground.

The list of language families, isolates, and unclassified languages below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.

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  • Aguano †
  • Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Aikanã, Tubarão)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Andaquí (also known as Andaqui, Andakí)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (also known as Andoke)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Andoquero †
  • Arauan (9)
  • Arawakan (South America and Caribbean) (64) (also known as Maipurean)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Arutani
  • Aymaran (3)
  • Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (also known as Baenán, Baenã)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Barbacoan (8)
  • Betoi (Colombia) (also known as Betoy, Jirara)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Bororoan
  • Botocudoan (3) (also known as Aimoré)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Cahuapanan (2) (also known as Jebero, Kawapánan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Camsá (Colombia) (also known as Sibundoy, Coche)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Candoshi (also known as Maina, Kandoshi)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Canichana (Bolivia) (also known as Canesi, Kanichana)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Carabayo
  • Cariban (29) (also known as Caribe, Carib)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Catacaoan (also known as Katakáoan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Cayubaba (Bolivia)
  • Chapacuran (9) (also known as Chapacura-Wanham, Txapakúran)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Charruan (also known as Charrúan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Chibchan (Central and South America) (22)
  • Chimuan (3) †
  • Chipaya–Uru (also known as Uru–Chipaya)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Chiquitano
  • Choco (10) (also known as Chocoan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Chon (2) (also known as Patagonian)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Chono †
  • Coeruna (Brazil) †
  • Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
  • Cueva †
  • Culle (Peru) (also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Esmeraldeño (also known as Esmeralda, Takame)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Fulnió
  • Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) †
  • Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) †
  • Guaicuruan (7) (also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Guajiboan (4) (also known as Wahívoan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Guamo (Venezuela) (also known as Wamo)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Guató
  • Harakmbut (2) (also known as Tuyoneri)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Hibito–Cholon †
  • Himarimã
  • Hodï (Venezuela) (also known as Jotí, Hoti, Waruwaru)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  • Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Huarpe (also known as Warpe)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  • Itonama (Bolivia) (also known as Saramo, Machoto)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Jabutian
  • Je (13) (also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Jeikó †
  • Jirajaran (3) (also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Jivaroan (2) (also known as Hívaro)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Kaimbe †
  • Kaliana (also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Kamakanan †
  • Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Karajá
  • Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) †
  • Katembrí †
  • Katukinan (3) (also known as Catuquinan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Kawésqar (Chile) (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Kwaza (Koayá) (Brazil: Rondônia)
  • Leco (Lapalapa, Leko)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Lule (Argentina) (also known as Tonocoté)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Máku (Maku of Auari)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Malibú (also known as Malibu)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Mapudungun (Chile, Argentina) (also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Mascoyan (5) (also known as Maskóian, Mascoian)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Matacoan (4) (also known as Mataguayan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Matanawí †
  • Maxakalían (3) (also known as Mashakalían)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) †
  • Mosetenan (also known as Mosetén)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Movima (Bolivia)
  • Munichi (Peru) (also known as Muniche)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Muran (4)
  • Mutú (also known as Loco)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Nadahup (5)
  • Nambiquaran (5)
  • Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  • Nonuya (Peru, Colombia)
  • Ofayé
  • Old Catío–Nutabe (Colombia) †
  • Omurano (Peru) (also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) †
  • Otomakoan (2) †
  • Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe)
  • Palta †
  • Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  • Pano–Tacanan (33)
  • Panzaleo (Ecuador) (also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Patagon † (Peru)
  • Peba–Yaguan (2) (also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Pijao†
  • Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles (Guanahatabey, Macorix, Ciguayo) † (Cuba, Hispaniola)
  • Puelche (Chile) (also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Puinave (also known as Makú)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Puquina (Bolivia) †
  • Purian (2) †
  • Quechuan (46)
  • Rikbaktsá
  • Saliban (2) (also known as Sálivan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Sechura (Atalan, Sec)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Tabancale † (Peru)
  • Tairona (Colombia) †
  • Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) †
  • Taruma †
  • Taushiro (Peru) (also known as Pinchi, Pinche)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Tequiraca (Peru) (also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Teushen † (Patagonia, Argentina)
  • Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Timotean (2) †
  • Tiniguan (2) (also known as Tiníwan, Pamiguan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
  • Tucanoan (15)
  • Tupian (70, including Guarani)
  • Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) †
  • Urarina (also known as Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Vilela
  • Wakona †
  • Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (also known as Guarao)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Witotoan (6) (also known as Huitotoan, Bora–Witótoan)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (also known as Shokó)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) †
  • Yaghan (Chile) (also known as Yámana)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Yanomaman (4)
  • Yaruro (also known as Jaruro)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Yuracare (Bolivia)
  • Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (also known as Carabayo, Jurí)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Yurumanguí (Colombia) (also known as Yurimangui, Yurimangi)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". †
  • Zamucoan (2)
  • Zaparoan (5) (also known as Záparo)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Language stock proposals

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

Hypothetical language-family proposals of American languages are often cited as uncontroversial in popular writing. However, many of these proposals have not been fully demonstrated, or even demonstrated at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial, with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, Hokan–Siouan, which Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock").[60] Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals:

<templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/>

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Discussions of past proposals can be found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).

Amerindian linguist Lyle Campbell also assigned different percentage values of probability and confidence for various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths.[61] For example, the Germanic language family would receive probability and confidence percentage values of +100% and 100%, respectively. However, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be −95%, while the confidence value might be 95%.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". 0% probability or confidence would mean complete uncertainty.

Language family Probability Confidence
Algonkian–Gulf −50% 50%
Almosan (and beyond) −75% 50%
Atakapa–Chitimacha −50% 60%
Aztec–Tanoan 0% 50%
Coahuiltecan −85% 80%
Eskaleut,
Chukotan[62] 		−25% 20%
Guaicurian–Hokan 0% 10%
Gulf −25% 40%
Hokan–Subtiaba −90% 75%
Jicaque–Hokan −30% 25%
Jicaque–Subtiaba −60% 80%
Jicaque–Tequistlatecan +65% 50%
Keresan and Uto-Aztecan 0% 60%
Keresan and Zuni −40% 40%
Macro-Mayan[63] +30% 25%
Macro-Siouan[64] −20% 75%
Maya–Chipaya −80% 95%
Maya–Chipaya–Yunga −90% 95%
Mexican Penutian −40% 60%
Misumalpan–Chibchan +20% 50%
Mosan −60% 65%
Na-Dene 0% 25%
Natchez–Muskogean +40% 20%
Nostratic–Amerind −90% 75%
Otomanguean–Huave +25% 25%
Purépecha–Quechua −90% 80%
Quechua as Hokan −85% 80%
Quechumaran +50% 50%
Sahaptian–Klamath–(Molala) +75% 50%
Sahaptian–Klamath–Tsimshian +10% 10%
Takelman[65] +80% 60%
Tlapanec–Subtiaba as Otomanguean +95% 90%
Tlingit–Eyak–Athabaskan +75% 40%
Tunican 0% 20%
Wakashan and Chimakuan 0% 25%
Yukian–Gulf −85% 70%
Yukian–Siouan −60% 75%
Zuni–Penutian −80% 50%

Pronouns

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It has long been observed that a remarkable number of Native American languages have a pronominal pattern with first-person singular forms in n and second-person singular forms in m. (Compare first-person singular m and second-person singular t across much of northern Eurasia, as in English me and thee, Spanish me and te, and Hungarian -m and -d.) This pattern was first noted by Alfredo Trombetti in 1905. It caused Sapir to suggest that ultimately all Native American languages would turn out to be related.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Joseph Greenberg used the pattern as evidence to support his Amerind languages proposal,[66] a controversial grouping. Johanna Nichols suggests that the pattern had spread through diffusion.[67] This notion was rejected by Lyle Campbell, who argued that the frequency of the n/m pattern was not statistically elevated in either area compared to the rest of the world.[68] Zamponi found that Nichols's findings were distorted by her small sample size. Looking instead at data from protolanguages and isolates to represent whole families rather than individual languages, he found that about 30% of 70 languages analyzed followed the n/m pattern in North America, compared to only 5% in South America and 7% of non-American languages. Nevertheless, Zamponi concludes that because most languages of the world base their pronouns on common consonants (like m, n, t, k and s), this shared pattern cannot be used as the only proof of common ancestry.[66]

Linguistic areas

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Unattested languages

Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.

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Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

Pidgins and mixed languages

Various miscellaneous languages such as pidgins, mixed languages, trade languages, and sign languages are given below in alphabetical order.

<templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css"/>

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  1. American Indian Pidgin English
  2. Algonquian-Basque pidgin (also known as Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois; spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  3. Broken Oghibbeway (also known as Broken Ojibwa)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  4. Broken Slavey
  5. Bungee (also known as Bungi, Bungie, Bungay, or the Red River Dialect)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  6. Callahuaya (also known as Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya Jargon)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  7. Carib Pidgin (also known as Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  8. Carib Pidgin–Arawak Mixed Language
  9. Catalangu
  10. Chinook Jargon
  11. Delaware Jargon (also known as Pidgin Delaware)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  12. Eskimo Trade Jargon (also known as Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  13. Greenlandic Pidgin (West Greenlandic Pidgin)
  14. Guajiro-Spanish
  15. Güegüence-Nicarao
  16. Haida Jargon
  17. Inuktitut-English Pidgin (Quebec)
  18. Jargonized Powhatan
  19. Keresan Sign Language
  20. Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (also known as Labrador Inuit Pidgin)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  21. Lingua Franca Apalachee
  22. Lingua Franca Creek
  23. Lingua Geral Amazônica (also known as Nheengatú, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  24. Lingua Geral do Sul (also known as Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  25. Loucheux Jargon (also known as Jargon Loucheux)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  26. Media Lengua
  27. Mednyj Aleut (also known as Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  28. Michif (also known as French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  29. Mobilian Jargon (also known as Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  30. Montagnais Pidgin Basque (also known as Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  31. Nootka Jargon (spoken during the 18th–19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  32. Ocaneechi (also known as Occaneechee; spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  33. Pidgin Massachusett
  34. Plains Indian Sign Language

Writing systems

While most Indigenous languages have adopted the Latin script as the written form of their languages, a few languages have their own unique writing systems after encountering the Latin script (often through missionaries) that are still in use. All pre-Columbian Indigenous writing systems are no longer used as the primary script, but many are undergoing revitalization.

Indigenous writing systems of the Americas
Writing system Type Language(s) Region(s) Dates in use Status Inventor
Quipu Logographic,
potentially phonetic (syllabary) at least during the colonial period and possibly the pre-Columbian era. 		Aymara, Quechua, Puquina, Mapuche and other Andean languages Andean civilizations (Central Andes) 2600s BCE – 1900s CE Extinct
Olmec hieroglyphs Undeciphered, likely logosyllabary Likely Mixe–Zoque languages, but linguistic status remains debatable Isthmus of Tehuantepec 1500 BCE – 400 BCE Extinct
Zapotec script Likely Zapotecan languages Oaxaca 500 BCE – 900 CE Extinct
Epi-Olmec script Likely Zoque languages Isthmus of Tehuantepec 400 BCE – 500 CE Extinct
Izapan scripts Undeciphered, likely logosyllabary Likely an unknown Mixe–Zoquean language, Highland Mayan languages Southern Guatemala 300s BCE – 100s CE (Late Preclassic) Extinct
Maya script Logographic
Syllabary 		Mayan languages: Maya civilization: Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize 200s BCE – 1700 CE Extinct
Teotihua script Undeciphered, likely logosyllabary Nahuatl, other Central Mexico 100 BCE – 750 CE Extinct
Mixtec script (Mixteca-Puebla script) Logographic
Syllabary 		Mixtecan languages Oaxaca, Puebla, Guerrero 1100s–1600s Extinct
Aztec script (Mixteca-Puebla script) Logographic
Syllabary 		Classical Nahuatl Central Mexico 1100s–1600s Extinct
Komqwejwi'kasikl (Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphs) Logographic

Syllabary

Alphabet

Mi'kmaq Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick 1675–1800s (as codified) Extinct Father Le Clercq (as codified, previouslypictographic)
Cherokee syllabary Syllabary Cherokee Cherokee Nation, US 1820s–present Active Sequoyah ᏍᏏᏉᏯ
Canadian Aboriginal syllabics Abugida Canada, Midwestern United States 1840s–present Active James Evans
Blackfoot Syllabics Blackfoot Alberta, Canada
Montana, United States 		1888–present Endangered John Tims
Carrier syllabics Dakelh and some other Athabaskan languages British Columbia, Canada 1885–1920s Endangered Adrien-Gabriel Morice
Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics Alphasyllabary (much like Hangul) Anishinaabemowin, Fox, Ho-Chunk, Potawatomi Iowa, Michigan, and Nebraska, US
Coahuila, Mexico 		1800s–present Endangered
Yugtun script Syllabary Central Alaskan Yup'ik Alaska 1900–present Endangered Uyaquq
Afaka syllabary Syllabary Ndyuka Suriname, French Guiana 1910–present Endangered Afáka Atumisi
Saanich alphabet Alphabet North Straits Salish (Saanich dialect) Southern Salish Sea islands: British Columbia and Washington state 1978–present Active Dave Elliott
Osage script Alphabet Osage Osage Nation, United States 2006–present Active Herman Mongrain Lookout

See also

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References

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com)
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"..
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Paper presented at the Archaeology Research Seminar, RSPAS, Canberra, Australia.
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Robert-Falcon Ouellette, Honouring Indigenous Languages Within Parliament, 2019 42-2 Canadian Parliamentary Review 3, 2019 CanLIIDocs 3786, <https://canlii.ca/t/spw6>, retrieved on 2025-08-12
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ethnologue (2021)
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ a b c d e f g h Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Shuar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  32. ↑ a b c d e Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
  36. ↑ a b c Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
  37. ↑ Hofling, Mopan Maya–Spanish–English Dictionary, 1.
  38. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". Template:Open access
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Cocopah at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
  49. ↑ Havasupai‑Walapai‑Yavapai at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  50. ↑ a b INALI (2012) México: Lenguas indígenas nacionales
  51. ↑ "Kumiai". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
  52. ↑ Quechan at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
  53. ↑ Yavapai at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
  54. ↑ Mojave language at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ If the Caucasus is considered to be a part of Europe, Northwest Caucasian, Northeast Caucasian and Kartvelian would be included, resulting in five language families within Europe. Other language families, such as the Turkic, Mongolic and Afroasiatic families, have entered Europe in later migrations.
  59. ↑ Nater 1984, pg. 5
  60. ↑ Ruhlen, Merritt. (1991 [1987]). A Guide to the World's Languages Volume 1: Classification, p.216. Edward Arnold. Paperback: Template:ISBN.
  61. ↑ Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Ch. 8 Distant Genetic Relationships, pp. 260–329. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
  62. ↑ American-Arctic–Paleosiberian Phylum, Luoravetlan – and beyond
  63. ↑ Macro-Mayan includes Mayan, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoquean, and sometimes Huave.
  64. ↑ Siouan–Iroquoian–Caddoan–[Yuchi]
  65. ↑ Alternatively Takelma–Kalapuyan
  66. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ Nichols & Peterson 1996
  68. ↑ Campbell 1997
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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Bibliography

<templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" />

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"..
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

North America

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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). Template:ISBN.
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Nater, Hank F. (1984). The Bella Coola Language. Mercury Series; Canadian Ethnology Service (No. 92). Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.
  • Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1–142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska).
  • Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen.
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum.
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749–795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976).
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
  • Sletcher, Michael, 'North American Indians', in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005).
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
  • Vaas, Rüdiger: 'Die Sprachen der Ureinwohner'. In: Stoll, Günter, Vaas, Rüdiger: Spurensuche im Indianerland. Hirzel. Stuttgart 2001, chapter 7.
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121–150.
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

South America

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  • Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press.
  • Fabre, Alain. (1998). "Manual de las lenguas indígenas sudamericanas, I-II". München: Lincom Europa.
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. Template:ISBN.
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
  • Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
  • Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
  • Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
  • Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
  • Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
  • Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138–141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd.
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Template:ISBN.
  • Debian North American Indigenous Languages Project

External links

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