Wariʼ language

The Wariʼ language (also Orowari, Wari, Pacaá Novo, Pacaás Novos, Pakaa Nova, Pakaásnovos) is the sole remaining vibrant language of the Chapacuran language family of the Brazilian–Bolivian border region of the Amazon. It has about 2,700 speakers, also called Wariʼ, who live along tributaries of the Pacaas Novos river in Western Brazil. The word means "we!" in the Wariʼ language and is the term given to the language and tribe by its speakers. Wariʼ is written in the Latin script.

Dialects

Wariʼ dialects listed by Angenot (1997):

Northern dialects

• Wari’-Oro Waram
• Wari’-Oro Mon
• Wari’-Oro Waram Xijen

Southern dialects

• Wari’-Oro Não
• Wari’-Oro Eo
• Wari’-Oro At
• Wari’-Oro Jowin
• Wari’-Oro Kao Oro Aje

Phonology

None of the segments described below only occur in borrowed words or only in specific word classes. There are some sounds not listed which are only used in onomatopoeia and can violate the usual phonotactic and phonological constraints.

Consonants

The Oro Nao dialect of Wariʼ as described by Everett & Kern (1997) has the following consonant phonemes. It is a relatively large inventory by Lowland Amazonian standards. The angled brackets represent the spellings associated with each sound.

	Bilabial	Dental	Post- alveolar	Velar		Glottal
				Plain	Labial	Plain	Labial
Nasal	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Plosive	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme		Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Affricate	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Fricative						Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Approximant			Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme		Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Flap		Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme

is a trilled affricate made up of a bilabial trill preceded by a dental stop, and is only reported from four other languages. In Oro Não, this has been analysed as an allophone of /t/ that only occurs before /o/ and /y/ which does not occur in every idiolect. In some dialects it is a separate phoneme; however, only about 24 words contain the sound, some of which are onomatopoeic. It is also used more by older speakers of the language.

Consonant AlternationsTemplate:Sfn

• /t͡ʃ/ can become Template:IPAblink, with a tendency to surface as [ʃ] more before unrounded vowels than rounded ones.

  'he is thin' can be [t͡ʃaˈt͡ʃiʔ na] or [ʃaˈʃiʔ na].

• [m] can become Template:IPAblink (a sequence of the bilabial nasal followed by the voiced bilabial stop) syllable initially, most frequently before /a/ but also before other vowels. The tendency to realise it as a sequence is greater if the syllable is stressed.

  'its filth' can be [homiˈɾi] or [homᵇiˈɾi].

• [n] can become Template:IPAblink (a sequence of the voiced alveolar nasal followed the voiced alveolar stop) syllable initially, most frequently before /a/ but also before other vowels. The tendency to realise it as a sequence is greater if the syllable is stressed.

  'my head' can be [wiˈna] or [wiˈnᵈa].

• [j] can become Template:IPAblink before /i/.

  'let's go!' Template:Angbr can be [maˈji] or [maˈʒi].

• [ʔj] can become [ʔd͡ʒ] word initially.

  'I am afraid' can be [ˈʔjinʔ ʔiˌna] or [ˈʔd͡ʒinʔ ʔiˌna].

Vowels

Wariʼ has one of the world's most asymmetrical vowel systems. Vowels are generally expected to be somewhat evenly distributed in the vowel space, not bunched into a corner. Additionally, vowels are expected to be unrounded when front and rounded when back until "gaps" in the vowel systems have been filled. Although Wariʼ has only six vowels, four of these are close/close-mid front vowels, of which two are rounded (although is uncommon). Non-native speakers have marked difficulty in distinguishing these front vowels, that contrast with only a single back vowel .

	Front		Back
	Unrounded	Rounded
Close (High)	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Close-mid	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Open (Low)	Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme

Vowel nasalisation occurs on diphthongs only; the few which are not nasalised all end in /i/. The following diphthongs occur in the Oro Nao dialect: [ẽĩ], [ãĩ], [aɪ], [õĩ], [oɪ], [ỹĩ], [ĩõ], [ẽõ], [ãõ].

Vowel alternations

• Template:IPAblink can become Template:IPAblink in unstressed syllables if the vowel in the following syllable is Template:IPAblink.

  'it is rocking' can be or .

• /e/ becomes Template:IPAblink before all stops other than , and in unstressed syllables in harmony with /e/ becoming Template:IPAblink in the stressed syllable.

  'day' is because of the

  'they went out' is because the in the stressed syllable causes /e/ to become Template:IPAblink and the preceding ones change in harmony.

• /e/ becomes Template:IPAblink before nasals, and in harmony with a /e/ becoming Template:IPAblink in the stressed syllable.

  'it is numb' is .

• Template:IPAblink can become Template:IPAblink in unstressed syllables when the vowel in the stressed syllable is not Template:IPAblink.

  'its seed' can be or .

• Template:IPAblink is a rare segment and for some speakers is evolving into Template:IPAblink in open syllables and Template:IPAblink in closed ones.

Syllables

The basic syllable in Wari' is CV(C), but suffixes can be of the form VC, VCVC or V. Only stops and nasals can occur in syllable codas. Consonant clusters are rare: /n/ is the only first segment found, and /t/, /k/ and /t͡ʃ/ are the only second segments found in non-compound words.

Wariʼ has words ending in the consonant clusters and . These have been analysed as single sounds, but apparently only to avoid complicating syllable structure. If these are separate phonemes, these clusters only occur word finally.

In the Oro Nao dialect, many consonants alternate with [ʔC] at the beginning of monosyllabic words, and Template:IPAblink always precedes word initial semivowels (Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink), including in polysyllabic words. There is a correlation between words that begin [ʔC] in Oro Nao and words that begin [ʔaC] in other dialects. For example, 'water' is Template:Angbr [ʔkom] in Oro Nao and Template:Angbr [ʔaˈkom] in other dialects. Loss of this initial syllable is a potential explanation of why these words have variants that break the phonotactic rules. However, these generalisations do not always hold; for instance 'thorn' Template:Angbr [ʔpi] is pronounced the same in all dialects.

Stress

The final syllable of words in major lexical categories is stressed. The verb tends to take the primary stress, with secondary stress on the others. However, emphasis of a particular word can cause transfer of the primary stress.

Morphology

Wariʼ is a largely analytic language, which has almost no verbal inflection but many derivational processes.

Possession

Wariʼ has two main classes of nouns:

1. nouns (named as such because their citation form ends with the suffix /-xiʼ/)
2. non- nouns

nouns are inalienably possessed, and therefore have a paradigm of possession marking suffixes.

		Singular	Plural
1st person	Exclusive	-Ø	-xut
	Inclusive		-xiʼ
2nd person		-m	-huʼ
3rd person	Masculine	-con	-cocon
	Feminine	-cam	-camam
	Neuter	-in (only nouns referring to humans trigger number agreement)

Some forms have allomorphs, especially when following stems that ends in the vowel [e], for instance becomes and becomes .

There is also a paradigm of nominal inflectional clitics that inflect for person, number and third person gender. These are used to show possession of a non- noun.

		Singular	Plural
1st person	Exclusive	ne	nuxut
	Inclusive		nexiʼ
2nd person		nem	nuhuʼ
3rd person	Masculine	nucun	nucucun
	Feminine	nequem	nequequem
	Neuter	nein

Most nouns have alternate forms which cannot be possessed. To signify possession of these forms, the inalienable counterparts must be used. For example, to convey the meaning 'his bone or leg', the form of the noun () with the third person masculine singular ending must be used. The nonpossessed form of the noun () cannot be used with the third person masculine singular nominal inflectional clitic.

Reduplication

Verbs

There is no affixation at all on verbs, but reduplication is used to mark aspect. Plural forms are derived by partial reduplication of the CV from the stressed syllable. This can either be a CV(CV) pattern, (where the second is optional) usually for transitive verbs: 'cut', 'cut' (plural); 'eat', ' 'eat' (plural). A CVrV pattern is usually used for intransitive verbs: 'break' (intr), 'break' (plural). About a third of plural forms are derived by each of these types of reduplication, and the final third by suppletion.

Nouns

Reduplication of nouns can derive names or descriptive terms. Thus (mouth-Template:Gcl) means 'talker', and (testicles-Template:Gcl) means 'legendary character who has enlarged testicles'.

Clitics

Wariʼ has both verbal and nominal inflectional clitics, which are analysed as such and not affixes for a few reasons. Verbal inflectional clitics can occur as whole utterances as responses, as the referent is clear from the previous statement. They also do not undergo the phonological processes that is expected if they were suffixes to the main verb, for instance they do not take the primary stress, which the possessive suffixes do when they attach to xiʼ nouns.

Verbal inflectional clitics are inflected for person, number, tense, third person gender (only if tenseless), voice, and contain both the subject and the object of the verb. Where there is more than one object, the clitic represents one object based on the semantic roles present in the following hierarchy:

GOAL>CIRCUMSTANCE>THEME>BENEFACTIVE>COMITATIVE>LOCATION>TIME.

Morphophonological processes

Wariʼ has three types of assimilatory process – regressive (or anticipatory), progressive (or preservative) and coalescent. This mainly occurs across word-initial morpheme boundaries.

Regressive assimilation occurs at morpheme boundaries involving consonants, where the consonant of the suffix causes a change in the consonant of the stem. This happens when nouns with stems that end in inflect for third person masculine or feminine, as the /k/ in the suffix causes the /y/ in the stem to become /ts/:

Progressive assimilation occurs over morpheme boundaries between nasal consonants or diphthongs and voiceless stops. This type of assimilation is optional but common in normal speech, however does not seem to appear in careful speech: 'Where is my father?' can be pronounced as either [mon'de] or [mon'te].

Coalescence is the most common assimilatory process, which is often accompanied by regressive vowel harmony. There are three principles which guide the output of vowel coalescence.

1. If one of the two vowels is a back vowel, the output vowel will be a back vowel: xiri- 'house' + -u 'Template:Gcl' = xuru 'my house'
2. The output vowel will have the height of the highest vowel of the two input vowels: toco- 'eye' + -um 'Template:Gcl' = tucum 'their eyes'
3. If the input vowels are identical, the output vowel is identical (this only occurs with /i/+/i/ in the corpus collected by Everett and Kern (1997)).

Syntax

Basic constituent order in Wariʼ is deemed to be VOS, although it is uncommon to have multiple expressed constituents. Often arguments to the verb are indicated by the agreement affixes which form the verbal inflectional clitics, where the subject affix precedes the one for the object. A third person object or subject can either be overtly marked or just referenced in the inflectional clitic, first and second person can only be marked by the clitic.

A verb can have up to four arguments, but it is uncommon to express more than one at a time. Instances of three or more arguments being expressed usually only come from elicited examples.

COMP sentences

COMP sentences are referred to as such by Everett and Kern (1997) because their initial position is occupied by what they refer to as a COMP or complementizer word. These give the sentence – or a variable in the sentence – a particular interpretation.

For a sentence to be a COMP sentence, it must have a COMP word in the initial position, an inflectional morpheme closely following which gives information about tense, mood, and sometimes gender, and a tenseless verbal inflectional clitic following the verb.

Here is a list of the COMP words found in the Oro Nao dialect.

COMP word	Morphological composition	Function	Example sentence
	demonstrative Template:Gloss	interrogation	Template:Interlinear
	Template:Gloss	interrogation (masculine)	Template:Interlinear
	Template:Gloss	interrogation (feminine)	Template:Interlinear
	Template:Gloss	interrogation (neuter)	Template:Interlinear
	verb Template:Gloss	negation	Template:Interlinear
	verb Template:Gloss	condition	Template:Interlinear
	like}	indication of resemblance	Template:Interlinear
	emphatic pronoun Template:Gloss	affirmation/interrogation	Template:Interlinear
	verb Template:Gloss	contraexpectation	Template:Interlinear
	demonstrative Template:Gloss	interrogation	Template:Interlinear
	prepostition Template:Gloss	subordination	Template:Interlinear

Copular Sentences

Wariʼ does not have a copula verb, so sentences that would use this instead have what would be the adjective become the verb.

Definiteness

Wariʼ does not have any article. Definiteness or indefiniteness can be expressed by either the use of demonstratives or verbal inflectional clitics containing the object. However this latter option does not always distinguish definiteness, as indefinite objects can also be marked in the inflectional clitics.

References

Further reading

• Mily Crevels (2012). Language Endangerment in South America: The Clock is Ticking In Lyle Campbell & Verónica Grondona. (Eds.).The indigenous languages of south america : A comprehensive guide. (pp. 167-234).

External links

• Pacaas Novos (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)

RPP:realis past/present MF:masculine or feminine INFL:inflection S:subject EMPH:emphasis COMP:complementizer