Vietnamese alphabet

The Vietnamese alphabet (Template:Langx, ) is the modern writing script for the Vietnamese language. It is a Latin-based script whose spelling conventions are derived from the orthography of Romance languages such as Portuguese, Italian, and French. It was originally developed by Francisco de Pina and other Jesuit missionaries in the early 17th century.

The Vietnamese alphabet contains 29 letters, including 7 letters using four diacritics: Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, and Template:Vr. There are an additional 5 diacritics used to designate tone (as in Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, and Template:Vr). The complex vowel system and the large number of letters with diacritics, which can stack twice on the same letter (e.g. meaning 'first'), makes it easy to distinguish the Vietnamese orthography from other writing systems that use the Latin alphabet.

The Vietnamese system's use of diacritics produces an accurate transcription for tones despite the limitations of the Roman alphabet. On the other hand, sound changes in the spoken language have led to different letters, digraphs and trigraphs now representing the same sounds.

Letter names and pronunciation

Vietnamese uses 22 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The 4 remaining letters aren't considered part of the Vietnamese alphabet although they are used to write loanwords, languages of other ethnic groups in the country based on Vietnamese phonetics to differentiate the meanings or even Vietnamese dialects, for example: Template:Vr or Template:Vr for southerner pronunciation of Template:Vr in standard Vietnamese.

In total, there are 12 vowels () and 17 consonants (, literally 'extra sound').

File:Vietnamese Decision 31 Cursive Chart.svg

Handwritten Vietnamese alphabet

Vietnamese alphabet

Letter	Input keys		Name (when pronounced)	IPA
	TELEX	VNI		Hanoi	Nghệ An	Sài Gòn
A, a
Ă, ă	AW	A8
Â, â	AA	A6
B, b			/ bờ
C, c			/ cờ
D, d			/ dờ
Đ, đ	DD	D9
E, e
Ê, ê	EE	E6
G, g			/ gờ
H, h
I, i			ngắn
K, k			ca
L, l			(e) lờ
M, m			(e) mờ
N, n			(e) nờ
O, o
Ô, ô	OO	O6
Ơ, ơ	OW	O7
P, p
Q, q			/ quờ
R, r			rờ
S, s			ét / sờ nặng
T, t			/ tờ
U, u
Ư, ư	UW/W	U7
V, v			/ vờ
X, x			ích / xờ nhẹ
Y, y

Notes

Vietnamese unused letters

Letter	Name (when pronounced)	Hà Nội		Nghệ An		Sài Gòn
		IPA	Phoneme	IPA	Phoneme	IPA	Phoneme
F, f
J, j
W, w	/ đớp lưu
Z, z	dét

• The vowels in the table are bolded and italicized.
• The use of the terms or to refer to Template:Vr and as or to refer to Template:Vr is to avoid confusion in some contexts, the same for Template:Vr as or (literally, 'strong s' or 'heavy s') and Template:Vr as (literally, 'light x'), Template:Vr as (literally, 'short i') and Template:Vr as (literally, 'long y').
• Template:Vr is always followed by Template:Vr in every word and phrase in Vietnamese, e.g. 'trousers', 'to attract', etc.
• The name for Template:Vr is from the French name for the letter: (literally, 'Greek i'), referring to the letter's origin from the Greek letter upsilon. The other obsolete French pronunciations include Template:Vr () and Template:Vr ().
• The Vietnamese alphabet lacks the 4 letters Template:Vr (, ), Template:Vr (), Template:Vr ( 'double u', , 'double v') and Template:Vr (). However, these letters are often used for foreign loanwords (even partially adapted ones: 'fluorine', 'joule', 'base') or may be kept for foreign names.
• Template:Vr is most commonly treated as a vowel along with Template:Vr. Template:Vr represents 'short ' and Template:Vr represents 'long '. Template:Vr can have tones as well as other vowels (Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr) e.g. 'America'. It may also act as a consonant (when used after Template:Vr and Template:Vr). It can sometimes be used to replace Template:Vr, e.g. 'bread' can sometimes be written by some people, but it is not generally considered standard or accurate.
• Template:Vr and Template:Vr are similar to each other in sound in Northern Vietnamese dialects or with some Southern Vietnamese speakers (especially in the Mekong Delta region) and can sometimes be used interchangeably between these speakers, e.g. or 'grass jelly'.

Middle Vietnamese alphabet

The Vietnamese alphabet in the Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum of Alexandre de Rhodes has 23 letters:

Upper case	A	B	ꞗ	C	D	đ	E	G	H	I	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q	R	S	T	V	X	Y
Lower case	a	b		c	d		e	g	h	i	k	l	m	n	o	p	q	r	ſ/s	t	v/u	x	y

In this dictionary, there are fewer letters than the modern alphabet. The letters ă, â, ê, ô, ơ, and ư are regarded as separate letters in the modern alphabet and are used in the dictionary, but Rhodes (the author) does not regard them as separate letters. In the dictionary, a letter with diacritics, like à, ạ, ă, ằ, and ặ, are not separate from the letter ; à, ạ, ă, ằ, and ặ are just regarded as the letter with diacritics.

In the alphabet, there is a letter, the letter b with flourish ꞗ, that has fallen out of use. It was used to represents the voiced bilabial fricative /β/.

Two letters, ꞗ and đ, are neither upper nor lower case. So according to that orthography, the names of the two provinces Đồng Nai and Lâm Đồng will be đồng Nai and Lâm đồng. In the modern alphabet, the lower case version of đ is đ, and upper case version of đ is Đ.

There are two variants of minuscule s: the long s, ſ, and the short s, s. In the modern alphabet, the long s, ſ, is no longer used, and the short s, s, is the only variant of s.

Normal v in the dictionary has two variants: the normal v, v, and the curving-bottom v, u. In the 17th century, v and u were not different letters, v being a variant of u.

Consonants

The alphabet is largely derived from Portuguese with some influence from French, although the usage of Template:Vr and Template:Vr was borrowed from Italian (compare Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang) and that for Template:Vr from (Latinised) Greek and Latin (compare Template:Wikt-lang, , Template:Wikt-lang), mirroring the English usage of these letters (compare Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang).

There is one trigraph, Template:Vr, and ten digraphs: Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr.

Consonants

Grapheme	Pronunciation (IPA)						Notes
	Syllable-initial			Syllable-final
	Northern	Central	Southern	Northern	Central	Southern
B b	Template:IPAslink
C c	Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink			Template:Vr is used instead when preceding Template:Vr. Template:Vr is used instead of Template:Vr if a on-glide exists. Realized as Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink word-finally following rounded vowels Template:Vr.
Ch ch	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink		Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink		[[Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch.2C nh|Multiple phonemic analyses of the Northern realization of final Template:Vr have been proposed]].
D d	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink					In Middle Vietnamese, Template:Vr represented Template:IPAslink. The distinction between Template:Vr and Template:Vr is now purely etymological in most modern dialects, although it is noted that some Southerners may pronounce Template:Vr as Template:IPAslink if distinction from Template:Vr is strictly necessary.
Đ đ	Template:IPAslink
G g	Template:IPAslink
Gh gh							Used instead of Template:Vr before Template:Vr, seemingly to follow the Italian convention. Template:Vr is not allowed in these environments.
Gi gi	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink					In Middle Vietnamese, Template:Vr represented Template:IPAslink. The distinction between Template:Vr and Template:Vr is now purely etymological in most modern dialects, although it is noted that some Southerners may pronounce Template:Vr as Template:IPAslink if distinction from Template:Vr is strictly necessary. Spelled Template:Vr before another Template:Vr.Template:Efn
H h	Template:IPAslink
K k	Template:IPAslink						Used instead of Template:Vr before Template:Vr to follow the European tradition. Template:Vr is not allowed in these environments.
Kh kh	Template:IPAslink						In Middle Vietnamese, Template:Vr represented Template:IPAblink
L l	Template:IPAslink
M m	Template:IPAslink
N n	Template:IPAslink				Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink		In Southern Vietnamese, word-final Template:Vr is realized as Template:IPAblink if not following Template:Vr.
Ng ng	Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink			Realized as Template:IPAblink or Template:IPAblink word finally after rounded vowels Template:Vr.
Ngh ngh							Spelling used instead of Template:Vr before Template:Vr in accordance with Template:Vr.
Nh nh	Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink		[[Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch.2C nh|Multiple phonemic analyses of the Northern realization of final Template:Vr have been proposed]].
P p	Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink			Only occurs initially in loanwords. Some Vietnamese pronounce it as a Template:Vr sound instead (a similar process occurs among speakers of Arabic, which lacks an unvoiced counterpart to Template:IPAslink).
Ph ph	Template:IPAslink						In Middle Vietnamese, Template:Vr represented Template:IPAblink
Qu qu	//		Template:IPAslink				Used in place of Template:Vr if a on-glide exists.
R r	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink					Realized as Template:IPAblink in Northern spelling pronunciation. In southern speech, the phoneme /r/, generally represented in Vietnamese linguistics by the letter ⟨r⟩, has a number of variant pronunciations. It may occur as a retroflex fricative Template:IPAblink, an alveolar approximant Template:IPAblink, an alveolar flap Template:IPAblink, a trill Template:IPAblink, a velar fricative Template:IPAblink, and a palatal approximant Template:IPAblink. The last two are not considered standard.
S s	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink					Realized as Template:IPAblink in Northern spelling pronunciation.
T t	Template:IPAslink			Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink		In Southern Vietnamese, word-final Template:Vr is realized as Template:IPAblink if not following Template:Vr.
Th th	Template:IPAslink
Tr tr	Template:IPAslink	Template:IPAslink					Realized as Template:IPAblink in Northern spelling pronunciation.
V v	Template:IPAslink		Template:IPAslink~Template:IPAslink				In Middle Vietnamese, it was spelled with the now-obsolete letter Template:Vr to represent Template:IPAblink. Can be realized as Template:IPAblink in Southern speech through spelling pronunciation and in loanwords. In traditional performance including Cải lương, Đờn ca tài tử, Hát bội and some old speakers of Overseas Vietnamese, it is pronounced as consonant cluster or .
X x	Template:IPAslink						In Middle Vietnamese, Template:Vr was pronounced Template:IPAblink.

• The consonants also called with its phoneme with , except . So will be , will be and so on.

Vowels

Pronunciation

The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is somewhat complicated. In some cases, the same letter may represent several different sounds, and different letters may represent the same sound. This is because the orthography was designed centuries ago and the spoken language has changed, as shown in the chart directly above that contrasts the difference between Middle and Modern Vietnamese.

Template:Vr and Template:Vr are mostly equivalent, and there is no concrete rule that says when to use one or the other, except in sequences like Template:Vr and Template:Vr (i.e. 'arm, hand' is read as while 'ear' is read as ). There have been attempts since the late 20th century to standardize the orthography by replacing Template:Vr with Template:Vr when it represents a vowel, the latest being a decision from the Vietnamese Ministry of Education in 1984. These efforts seem to have had limited effect. In textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục ('Publishing House of Education'), Template:Vr is used to represent only in Sino-Vietnamese words that are written with one letter Template:Vr alone (diacritics can still be added, as in Template:Vr, Template:Vr), at the beginning of a syllable when followed by Template:Vr (as in , ), after Template:Vr and in the sequence Template:Vr; therefore such forms as * and * are not "standard", though they are much preferred elsewhere. Most people and the popular media continue to use the spelling that they are most accustomed to.

Spelling and pronunciation in Vietnamese

Spelling	Sound
a	( in some dialects) except as below   in au and ay (but in ao and ai )   before syllable-final nh and ch , see  Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch, nh   in ưa , ia and ya   in ua except after q
ă
â
e
ê	except as below   before syllable-final nh and ch , see  Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch, nh   in iê and yê
i	except as below   after any vowel letter
o	except as below   before ng and c   after any vowel letter (= after a or e)   before any vowel letter except i (= before ă, a or e)
ô	except as below   before ng and c except after a u that is not preceded by a q   in uô except after q
ơ	except as below   in ươ
u	except as below   after q or any vowel letter   before any vowel letter except a, ô and i  Before a, ô and i: if preceded by q, otherwise
ư
y	except as below   after any vowel letter except u (= after â and a)

The uses of Template:Vr and Template:Vr to represent the phoneme can be categorized as "standard" (as used in textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục) and "non-standard" as follows.

Standard spellings in Vietnamese

Context	"Standard"	"Non-standard"
In one-lettered non-Sino-Vietnamese syllables	i (e.g.: í ới)
In one-lettered Sino-Vietnamese syllables	y (e.g.: y học)
Syllable-initial, not followed by ê	i (e.g.: im lặng)
Syllable-initial, followed by ê	y (e.g.: yết hầu)
After u	y (e.g.: khuyết tật)
After qu, not followed by ê, nh	y (e.g.: quý giá)	i (e.g.: quí giá)
After qu, followed by ê, nh	y (e.g.: xảo quyệt)
After b, d, đ, r, x	i (e.g.: địch thủ)
After g, not followed by a, ă, â, e, ê, o, ô, ơ, u, ư	i (e.g.: giữ gìn)
After h, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in non-Sino-Vietnamese syllables	i (e.g.: mí mắt)
After h, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in Sino-Vietnamese syllables	i (e.g.: kì thú)	y (e.g.: kỳ thú)
After ch, gh, kh, nh, ph, th	i (e.g.: ý nghĩa)
After n, s, v, not followed by any letter, in non-proper-noun syllables	i (e.g.: ni cô)
After n, s, v, not followed by any letter, in proper nouns	i (e.g.: Vi)	y (e.g.: Vy)
After h, k, l, m, n, s, t, v, followed by a letter	i (e.g.: ngôi miếu)
In Vietnamese personal names, after a consonant	i	either i or y, depending on personal preference

This "standard" set by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục is not definite. It is unknown why the literature books use Lí while the history books use Lý.

Spelling

Vowel nuclei

The table below matches the vowels of Hanoi Vietnamese (written in the IPA) and their respective orthographic symbols used in the writing system.

	Front		Central		Back
	Sound	Spelling	Sound	Spelling	Sound	Spelling
Centering		iê/ia*		ươ/ưa*		uô/ua*
Close		i, y		ư		u
Close-mid/ Mid		ê		ơ		ô
				â
Open-mid/ Open		e		a		o
				ă

Notes:

• The vowel is:
  • usually written Template:Vr: = (a suffix indicating profession, similar to the English suffix -er).
  • sometimes written Template:Vr after Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr: = 'America'
    • It is always written Template:Vr when:

1. preceded by an orthographic vowel: = 'to advise';
2. at the beginning of a word derived from Chinese (written as Template:Vr otherwise): = 'to love'.

• The vowel is written Template:Vr before Template:Vr or Template:Vr (since Template:Vr in that position represents ): = 'organ (musical)'; = . This generally only occurs in recent loanwords or when representing dialectal pronunciation.
• Similarly, the vowel is written Template:Vr before Template:Vr or Template:Vr: = Template:Wikt-lang (Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh variant of ). But unlike Template:Vr being frequently used in onomatopoeia, transcriptions from other languages and words "borrowed" from Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh dialects (such as Template:Wikt-lang), Template:Vr seems to be used solely to convey the feel of the Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh accents. In transcriptions, Template:Vr is preferred (e.g. 'cardboard', 'accordion').

Diphthongs and triphthongs

		Rising Vowels	Rising-Falling Vowels	Falling Vowels
	nucleus (V)	on-glides	+ V + off-glide	off-glides	off-glides
front	e	oe/(q)ue*	oeo/(q)ueo*		eo
	ê	uê			êu
	i	uy	uyu		iu
	ia/iê/yê*	uyê/uya*			iêu/yêu*
central	a	oa/(q)ua*	oai/(q)uai, oao/(q)uao*	ai	ao
	ă	oă/(q)uă*	oay/(q)uay*	ay	au
	â	uâ	uây	ây	âu
	ơ	uơ		ơi	ơu
	ư			ưi	ưu
	ưa/ươ*			ươi	ươu
back	o			oi
	ô			ôi
	u			ui
	ua/uô*			uôi

Notes:

The glide is written:

• Template:Vr after (spelled Template:Vr in this instance)
• Template:Vr in front of Template:Vr, Template:Vr, or Template:Vr except after Template:Vr
• Template:Vr following Template:Vr and Template:Vr
• Template:Vr in all other cases; is written as Template:Vr instead of *Template:Vr (cf. Template:Vr ), and that is written as Template:Vr after Template:Vr

The off-glide is written as Template:Vr except after Template:Vr and Template:Vr, where it is written as Template:Vr; is written as Template:Vr instead of *Template:Vr (cf. ).

The diphthong is written:

• Template:Vr at the end of a syllable: = 'sugar cane'
• before a consonant or off-glide: = 'piece'; = 'to slope, slant'

The Template:Vr of the diphthong changes to Template:Vr after Template:Vr:

• Template:Vr: = 'late at night'
• Template:Vr: = 'to advise'

Template:Vr changes to Template:Vr at the beginning of a syllable (Template:Vr does not change):

• = 'calm'; 'weak, feeble'

The diphthong is written:

• Template:Vr at the end of a syllable: = 'to buy'
• Template:Vr before a consonant or off-glide: = 'ten thousand'; = 'down'

The diphthong is written:

• Template:Vr at the end of a syllable: = 'to rain'
• Template:Vr before a consonant or off-glide: = 'irrigation canal'; = 'to water, irrigate, sprinkle'

Tone marks

Vietnamese is a tonal language, so the meaning of each word depends on the pitch in which it is pronounced. Tones are marked in the IPA as suprasegmentals following the phonemic value. Some tones are also associated with a glottalization pattern.

There are six distinct tones in the standard northern dialect. The first one ("level tone") is not marked and the other five are indicated by diacritics applied to the vowel part of the syllable. The tone names are chosen such that the name of each tone is spoken in the tone it identifies.

In the south, there is a merging of the and tones, in effect leaving five tones.

Order	Diacritic	Symbol	Input keys		Name	IPA diacritic	Vowels with diacritic
			TELEX	VNI
1	unmarked	N/A	Z*	0*		mid level,	A/a, Ă/ă, Â/â, E/e, Ê/ê, I/i, O/o, Ô/ô, Ơ/ơ, U/u, Ư/ư, Y/y
2	acute accent	á	S	1		high rising,	Á/á, Ắ/ắ, Ấ/ấ, É/é, Ế/ế, Í/í, Ó/ó, Ố/ố, Ớ/ớ, Ú/ú, Ứ/ứ, Ý/ý
3	grave accent	à	F	2		low falling,	À/à, Ằ/ằ, Ầ/ầ, È/è, Ề/ề, Ì/ì, Ò/ò, Ồ/ồ, Ờ/ờ, Ù/ù, Ừ/ừ, Ỳ/ỳ
4	hook above	ả	R	3		mid falling, (Northern); dipping, (Southern)	Ả/ả, Ẳ/ẳ, Ẩ/ẩ, Ẻ/ẻ, Ể/ể, Ỉ/ỉ, Ỏ/ỏ, Ổ/ổ, Ở/ở, Ủ/ủ, Ử/ử, Ỷ/ỷ
5	perispomeniTemplate:Efn	ã	X	4		glottalized rising, (Northern); slightly lengthened tone (Southern)	Ã/ã, Ẵ/ẵ, Ẫ/ẫ, Ẽ/ẽ, Ễ/ễ, Ĩ/ĩ, Õ/õ, Ỗ/ỗ, Ỡ/ỡ, Ũ/ũ, Ữ/ữ, Ỹ/ỹ
6	dot below	ạ	J	5		glottalized falling, (Northern); low rising, (Southern)	Ạ/ạ, Ặ/ặ, Ậ/ậ, Ẹ/ẹ, Ệ/ệ, Ị/ị, Ọ/ọ, Ộ/ộ, Ợ/ợ, Ụ/ụ, Ự/ự, Ỵ/ỵ

• *: Z (in TELEX) and 0 (in VNI) keys are used to remove the mark. For example, in VNI, U2 → Template:Vr, then press 0 → Template:Vr.
• Unmarked vowels are pronounced with a level voice, in the middle of the speaking range.
• The grave accent indicates that the speaker should start somewhat low and drop slightly in tone, with the voice becoming increasingly breathy.
• The hook indicates in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker should start in the middle range and fall, but in Southern Vietnamese that the speaker should start somewhat low and fall, then rise (as when asking a question in English).
• In the North, a perispomeni indicates that the speaker should start mid, break off (with a glottal stop), then start again and rise like a question in tone. In the South, it is realized identically to the Hỏi tone.
• The acute accent indicates that the speaker should start mid and rise sharply in tone.
• The dot or cross signifies in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker starts low and fall lower in tone, with the voice becoming increasingly creaky and ending in a glottal stop.

In syllables where the vowel part consists of more than one vowel (such as diphthongs and triphthongs), the placement of the tone is still a matter of debate. Generally, there are two methodologies, an "old style" and a "new style". While the "old style" emphasizes aesthetics by placing the tone mark as close as possible to the center of the word (by placing the tone mark on the last vowel if an ending consonant part exists and on the next-to-last vowel if the ending consonant does not exist, as in , ), the "new style" emphasizes linguistic principles and tries to apply the tone mark on the main vowel (as in , ). In both styles, when one vowel already has a quality diacritic on it, the tone mark must be applied to it as well, regardless of where it appears in the syllable (thus is acceptable while is not). In the case of the Template:Vr diphthong, the mark is placed on the Template:Vr. The Template:Vr in Template:Vr is considered part of the consonant. Currently, the new style is usually used in textbooks published by , while most people still prefer the old style in casual uses. Among Overseas Vietnamese communities, the old style is predominant for all purposes.

In lexical ordering, differences in letters are treated as primary, differences in tone markings as secondary and differences in case as tertiary differences. (Letters include for instance Template:Vr and Template:Vr but not Template:Vr. Older dictionaries also treated digraphs and trigraphs like Template:Vr and Template:Vr as base letters.) Ordering according to primary and secondary differences proceeds syllable by syllable. According to this principle, a dictionary lists before because the secondary difference in the first syllable takes precedence over the primary difference in the second syllable.

Structure

In the past, syllables in multisyllabic words were concatenated with hyphens, but this practice has died out and hyphenation is now reserved for word-borrowings from other languages. A written syllable consists of at most three parts, in the following order from left to right:

1. An optional beginning consonant part
2. A required vowel syllable nucleus and the tone mark, if needed, applied above or below it
3. An ending consonant part, can only be one of the following: Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, or nothing.

History

File:L-2360-a 0008 1 t24-C-R0072.jpg

A page from Alexandre de Rhodes' 1651 dictionary

Since the beginning of the Chinese rule in 111 BC, literature, government papers, scholarly works, and religious scripture were all written in classical Chinese (Template:Vi-nom, ) while indigenous writing with started around the ninth century.Template:Sfn In the 12th century, several Vietnamese words began to be written in , adapted from Chinese characters. The system was based on Chinese characters but supplemented with Vietnamese-invented characters to represent native Vietnamese words. These characters were adapted or created using methods such as phono-semantic compounds (Template:Vi-nom, ), double-phonetic compounds (Template:Vi-nom, ), and borrowing the character for its pronunciation (Template:Vi-nom, ).

Name

People have called the Latinized script of Vietnamese at least since 1867. In 1867, scholar Trương Vĩnh Ký published two grammar books. The first book is (Tips to teach and learn French), a Vietnamese book written in about French grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called (not ). The second book is (Simplification of Annamite grammar), a French book about Vietnamese grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called (European alphabet), (Latin characters). On Gia Dinh Bao April 15th issue of 1867, when mentioned the French book about Vietnamese grammar, the name was used to indicate the Latinized script of Vietnamese.

Creation of

As early as 1620, with the work of Francisco de Pina, Portuguese and Italian Jesuit missionaries in Vietnam began using Latin script to transcribe the Vietnamese language as an assistance for learning the language. The work was continued by the Avignonese Alexandre de Rhodes. Building on previous dictionaries by Gaspar do Amaral and António Barbosa, Rhodes compiled the , a Vietnamese–Portuguese–Latin dictionary, which was later printed in Rome in 1651, using their spelling system. These efforts led eventually to the development of the present Vietnamese alphabet. For 200 years, was used within the Catholic community.Template:Sfn However, works written in the Vietnamese alphabet saw limited use, while Catholic texts in chữ Nôm were significantly more widespread. thus remained the principal writing system used by Vietnamese Catholics during this period.

Colonial period

In 1910, the French colonial administration enforced . The Latin alphabet then became a means to publish Vietnamese popular literature, which was disparaged as vulgar by the Chinese-educated imperial elites. Historian Pamela A. Pears asserted that by instituting the Latin alphabet in Vietnam, the French cut the Vietnamese from their traditional Hán Nôm literature. An important reason why Latin script became the standard writing system in Vietnam but not in Cambodia and Laos, which were both dominated by the French for a similar amount of time under the same colonial framework, had to do with the Nguyễn Emperors of Vietnam heavily promoting its usage. According to the historian Liam Kelley in his 2016 work "Emperor Thành Thái’s Educational Revolution" neither the French nor the revolutionaries had enough power to spread the usage of down to the village level. It was by the imperial decree of Emperor Thành Thái in 1906 that parents could decide whether their children would follow a curriculum in (Template:Vi-nom) or (Template:Vi-nom, 'Southern sound', the contemporary Vietnamese name for ). This decree was issued at the same time when other social changes, such as the cutting of long male hair, were occurring. The main reason for the popularisation of the Latin alphabet in Vietnam/Đại Nam during the Nguyễn dynasty (the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin) was because of the pioneering efforts by intellectuals from French Cochinchina combined with the progressive and scientific policies of the French government in French Indochina that created the momentum for the usage of to spread.

From the first days it was recognized that the Chinese language was a barrier between us and the natives; the education provided by means of the hieroglyphic characters was completely beyond us; this writing makes possible only with difficulty transmitting to the population the diverse ideas which are necessary for them at the level of their new political and commercial situation. Consequently we are obliged to follow the traditions of our own system of education; it is the only one which can bring close to us the Annamites of the colony by inculcating in them the principles of European civilization and isolating them from the hostile influence of our neighbors.Template:Sfn

— Template:Comma separated entries

Since the 1920s, the Vietnamese mostly use , and new Vietnamese terms for new items or words are often calqued from Hán Nôm. Some French had originally planned to replace Vietnamese with French, but this never was a serious project, given the small number of French settlers compared with the native population. The French had to reluctantly accept the use of to write Vietnamese since this writing system, created by Portuguese missionaries, is based on Portuguese orthography, not French.

Mass education

Between 1907 and 1908, the short-lived Tonkin Free School promulgated and taught French language to the general population.

In 1917, the French system suppressed Vietnam's Confucian examination system, viewed as an aristocratic system linked with the "ancient regime", thereby forcing Vietnamese elites to educate their offspring in the French language education system. Emperor Khải Định declared the traditional writing system abolished in 1918. While traditional nationalists favoured the Confucian examination system and the use of chữ Hán, Vietnamese revolutionaries, progressive nationalists, and pro-French elites viewed the French education system as a means to "liberate" the Vietnamese from old Chinese domination and the unsatisfactory "outdated" Confucian examination system, to democratize education and to help bridge Vietnamese to European philosophies.

The French colonial system then set up another educational system, teaching Vietnamese as a first language using in primary school and then the French language (taught in ). Hundreds of thousands of textbooks for primary education began to be published in , with the unintentional result of turning the script into the popular medium for the expression for Vietnamese culture.

Late 20th century to present

Typesetting and printing Vietnamese has been challenging due to its number of accents/diacritics. This had led to the use of accent and diacritic-less names in Overseas Vietnamese, such as Viet instead of the proper Việt. Contemporary Vietnamese texts sometimes include words which have not been adapted to modern Vietnamese orthography, especially for documents written in chữ Hán. The Vietnamese language itself has been likened to a system akin to ruby characters elsewhere in Asia. French, which left a mark on the Vietnamese language in the form of loanwords and other influences, is no longer as widespread in Vietnam, with English or International English the preferred European language for commerce.

Computing

File:Về.png

Different ways in which tone marks can be presented on letters that already have diacritic, e.g. (`) on letter ê when computerising Vietnamese

The universal character set Unicode has full support for the Latin Vietnamese writing system, although it does not have a separate segment for it. The required characters that other languages use are scattered throughout the Basic Latin, Latin-1 Supplement, Latin Extended-A and Latin Extended-B blocks; those that remain (such as the letters with dau hoi) are placed in the Latin Extended Additional block. An ASCII-based writing convention, Vietnamese Quoted Readable and several byte-based encodings including VSCII (TCVN), VNI, VISCII and Windows-1258 were widely used before Unicode became popular. Most new documents now exclusively use the Unicode format UTF-8.

Unicode allows the user to choose between precomposed characters and combining characters in inputting Vietnamese. Because in the past some fonts implemented combining characters in a nonstandard way (see Verdana font), most people use precomposed characters when composing Vietnamese-language documents (except on Windows where Windows-1258 used combining characters).

Most keyboards on modern phone and computer operating systems, including iOS, Android and MacOS, have now supported the Vietnamese language and direct input of diacritics by default. Previously, Vietnamese users had to manually install free software such as Unikey on computers or Laban Key on phones to type Vietnamese diacritics. These keyboards support input methods such as Telex.

Unicode code points

The following table provides Unicode code points for all non-ASCII Vietnamese letters.

Unmarked	Grave	Hook	Perispomeni	Acute	Dot
	̀ (U+0300)	̉ (U+0309)	̃ (U+0303)	́ (U+0301)	̣ (U+0323)
Uppercase letters
A	À (U+00C0)	Ả (U+1EA2)	Ã (U+00C3)	Á (U+00C1)	Ạ (U+1EA0)
Ă (U+0102)	Ằ (U+1EB0)	Ẳ (U+1EB2)	Ẵ (U+1EB4)	Ắ (U+1EAE)	Ặ (U+1EB6)
 (U+00C2)	Ầ (U+1EA6)	Ẩ (U+1EA8)	Ẫ (U+1EAA)	Ấ (U+1EA4)	Ậ (U+1EAC)
Đ (U+0110)
E	È (U+00C8)	Ẻ (U+1EBA)	Ẽ (U+1EBC)	É (U+00C9)	Ẹ (U+1EB8)
Ê (U+00CA)	Ề (U+1EC0)	Ể (U+1EC2)	Ễ (U+1EC4)	Ế (U+1EBE)	Ệ (U+1EC6)
I	Ì (U+00CC)	Ỉ (U+1EC8)	Ĩ (U+0128)	Í (U+00CD)	Ị (U+1ECA)
O	Ò (U+00D2)	Ỏ (U+1ECE)	Õ (U+00D5)	Ó (U+00D3)	Ọ (U+1ECC)
Ô (U+00D4)	Ồ (U+1ED2)	Ổ (U+1ED4)	Ỗ (U+1ED6)	Ố (U+1ED0)	Ộ (U+1ED8)
Ơ (U+01A0)	Ờ (U+1EDC)	Ở (U+1EDE)	Ỡ (U+1EE0)	Ớ (U+1EDA)	Ợ (U+1EE2)
U	Ù (U+00D9)	Ủ (U+1EE6)	Ũ (U+0168)	Ú (U+00DA)	Ụ (U+1EE4)
Ư (U+01AF)	Ừ (U+1EEA)	Ử (U+1EEC)	Ữ (U+1EEE)	Ứ (U+1EE8)	Ự (U+1EF0)
Y	Ỳ (U+1EF2)	Ỷ (U+1EF6)	Ỹ (U+1EF8)	Ý (U+00DD)	Ỵ (U+1EF4)
Lowercase letters
a	à (U+00E0)	ả (U+1EA3)	ã (U+00E3)	á (U+00E1)	ạ (U+1EA1)
ă (U+0103)	ằ (U+1EB1)	ẳ (U+1EB3)	ẵ (U+1EB5)	ắ (U+1EAF)	ặ (U+1EB7)
â (U+00E2)	ầ (U+1EA7)	ẩ (U+1EA9)	ẫ (U+1EAB)	ấ (U+1EA5)	ậ (U+1EAD)
đ (U+0111)
e	è (U+00E8)	ẻ (U+1EBB)	ẽ (U+1EBD)	é (U+00E9)	ẹ (U+1EB9)
ê (U+00EA)	ề (U+1EC1)	ể (U+1EC3)	ễ (U+1EC5)	ế (U+1EBF)	ệ (U+1EC7)
i	ì (U+00EC)	ỉ (U+1EC9)	ĩ (U+0129)	í (U+00ED)	ị (U+1ECB)
o	ò (U+00F2)	ỏ (U+1ECF)	õ (U+00F5)	ó (U+00F3)	ọ (U+1ECD)
ô (U+00F4)	ồ (U+1ED3)	ổ (U+1ED5)	ỗ (U+1ED7)	ố (U+1ED1)	ộ (U+1ED9)
ơ (U+01A1)	ờ (U+1EDD)	ở (U+1EDF)	ỡ (U+1EE1)	ớ (U+1EDB)	ợ (U+1EE3)
u	ù (U+00F9)	ủ (U+1EE7)	ũ (U+0169)	ú (U+00FA)	ụ (U+1EE5)
ư (U+01B0)	ừ (U+1EEB)	ử (U+1EED)	ữ (U+1EEF)	ứ (U+1EE9)	ự (U+1EF1)
y	ỳ (U+1EF3)	ỷ (U+1EF7)	ỹ (U+1EF9)	ý (U+00FD)	ỵ (U+1EF5)

See also

• Portuguese orthography
• Special characters:
  • Ă, Â, Đ, Ê, Ô, Ơ, Ư
  • Dot (diacritic)
  • Hook above
  • Horn (diacritic)
• Historic Writing
  • "Chữ Hán", classical Chinese written in Vietnam (Han characters)
  • "Chữ Nôm", former script used to write Vietnamese using Han and Nom (invented characters) words
• Coding and Input Methods:
  • Telex, the oldest standard input method for the Vietnamese alphabet on electronic devices.
  • VNI, another input and encoding convention for Vietnamese alphabet.
  • VIQR, another standard 7-bit input method for Vietnamese alphabet.
  • VISCII, another standard 8-bit encoding for Vietnamese alphabet.
  • Unicode, character encoding standard for most of the world's writing systems
• Vietnamese Braille
• Vietnamese calligraphy
• Vietnamese phonology
• Vietnamese punctuation
• Francisco de Pina
• Alexandre de Rhodes

Bibliography

• Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology. Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, 44, 135–193. (Published version of the author's MA thesis, University of Washington). (Reprinted 1981, Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics).
• Healy, Dana.(2003). Teach Yourself Vietnamese, Hodder Education, London.
• .
• Nguyen, Đang Liêm. (1970). Vietnamese pronunciation. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Template:ISBN.
• Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1955). Quốc-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, D. C.: Author.
• Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), The world's writing systems, (pp. 691–699). New York: Oxford University Press. Template:ISBN.
• Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Template:ISBN.
• Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2003). Vietnamese tone: A new analysis. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Routledge. (Published version of author's 2001 PhD dissertation, University of Florida: Hoa, Pham. Vietnamese tone: Tone is not pitch). Template:ISBN.
• Thompson, Laurence E. (1991). A Vietnamese reference grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Template:ISBN. (Original work published 1965).

Further reading

• Nguyen, A. M. (2006). Let's learn the Vietnamese alphabet. Las Vegas: Viet Baby. Template:ISBN
• Shih, Virginia Jing-yi. Quoc Ngu Revolution: A Weapon of Nationalism in Vietnam. 1991.

External links

• Template:Commons category-inline
• Vietnamese Unicode FAQs

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