Guarani language: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
imported>ElegantEgotist No edit summary |
No edit summary |
||
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Indigenous language, Paraguay variant}} | {{short description|Indigenous language, Paraguay variant}} | ||
{{About|the Paraguayan language|other varieties of Guarani|Guarani dialects}} | {{About|the Paraguayan language|other varieties of Guarani|Guarani dialects}} | ||
{{Distinguish|text=the Kurdish-Iranian [[Gorani language]] or the Indo-Aryan [[Gujarati language]]}} | {{Distinguish|text=the Kurdish-Iranian [[Gorani language]] or the Indo-Aryan [[Gujarati language]]}} | ||
| Line 6: | Line 6: | ||
| name = Guarani | | name = Guarani | ||
| altname = Paraguayan Guarani | | altname = Paraguayan Guarani | ||
| nativename = {{lang| | | nativename = {{lang|gug|avañeʼẽ}} | ||
| pronunciation = {{IPA| | | pronunciation = {{IPA|gug|ʔãʋãɲẽˈʔẽ|}}{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} | ||
| ethnicity = [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]]<br/>[[Paraguayan people]] | | ethnicity = [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]]<br/>[[Paraguayan people]] | ||
| state = [[Paraguay]] | | state = [[Paraguay]] | ||
| Line 19: | Line 19: | ||
| fam4 = [[Guaraní dialects|Guaraní]] | | fam4 = [[Guaraní dialects|Guaraní]] | ||
| script = [[Guarani alphabet]] ([[Latin script]]) | | script = [[Guarani alphabet]] ([[Latin script]]) | ||
| nation = {{ | | nation = {{ublist|[[Paraguay]]<br/>[[Bolivia]]<br/>[[Corrientes Province]], Argentina<br/>[[Tacuru]], Brazil}} | ||
| dia1 = [[Jopará]] | | dia1 = [[Jopará]] | ||
| dia2 = [[Correntine Guarani language|Taragui]] | | dia2 = [[Correntine Guarani language|Taragui]] | ||
| agency = [[Academia de la Lengua Guaraní]] (Guarani Ñeʼẽ Rerekuapavẽ) | | agency = [[Academia de la Lengua Guaraní]] (Guarani Ñeʼẽ Rerekuapavẽ) | ||
| iso1 = | | iso1 = | ||
| iso2 = | | iso2 = | ||
| iso3 = gug | | iso3 = gug <!-- either grn for [[d:Q35876]] full macro -- or gug for [[d:Q17478066]] Paraguay only --> | ||
| glotto = para1311 | | glotto = para1311 | ||
| glottorefname = Paraguayan Guaraní | | glottorefname = Paraguayan Guaraní | ||
| Line 35: | Line 35: | ||
| imagecaption = Books in Guarani | | imagecaption = Books in Guarani | ||
}} | }} | ||
[[File:WIKITONGUES- María speaking Guarani.webm|thumb|A Guarani speaker | [[File:WIKITONGUES- María speaking Guarani.webm|thumb|A Guarani speaker]] | ||
'''Guarani''' ( | '''Paraguayan Guarani''', or simply '''Guarani''' ({{lang|gug|avañe'ẽ}}),{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɡ|w|ɑːr|ə|ˈ|n|iː|,_|ˈ|ɡ|w|ɑːr|ən|i}} {{respell|GWAR|ə|NEE|,_|GWAR|ə|nee}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> {{lang|gug|avañeʼẽ}} "the people's language"}} is a [[language]] of [[South America]] that belongs to the [[Tupi–Guarani]] branch<ref>{{cite book |last=Britton |first=A. Scott |year=2004 |title=Guaraní-English/English-Guaraní Concise Dictionary |location=New York |publisher=[[Hippocrene Books]]}}</ref> of the [[Tupian languages|Tupian language family]]. It is one of the two official languages of [[Paraguay]] (along with [[Spanish language|Spanish]]), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population are monolingual speakers of the language.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mortimer |first=K |year=2006 |title=Guaraní Académico or Jopará? Educator Perspectives and Ideological Debate in Paraguayan Bilingual Education |journal=Working Papers in Educational Linguistics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=45–71}}</ref><ref name="SimonRomero">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/12/world/americas/in-paraguay-indigenous-language-with-unique-staying-power.html?ref=global-home&pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |first=Simon |last=Romero |title=In Paraguay, Indigenous Language With Unique Staying Power |date=12 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312190007/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/12/world/americas/in-paraguay-indigenous-language-with-unique-staying-power.html |archive-date=12 March 2012 |location=Asunción}}</ref> | ||
Variants of the language are spoken by communities in neighboring countries including parts of northeastern [[Argentina]], southeastern [[Bolivia]] and southwestern [[Brazil]]. It is a second official language of the [[Provinces of Argentina|Argentine province]] of [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]] since 2004<ref name="Ley5598">{{Cite web |url= | Variants of the language are spoken by communities in neighboring countries including parts of northeastern [[Argentina]], southeastern [[Bolivia]] and southwestern [[Brazil]]. It is a second official language of the [[Provinces of Argentina|Argentine province]] of [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]] since 2004<ref name="Ley5598">{{Cite web |url=https://www.saij.gob.ar/5598-local-corrientes-establece-guarani-como-idioma-oficial-alternativo-provincia-lpw0005598-2004-09-28/123456789-0abc-defg-895-5000wvorpyel?o=12&f=Total%7CFecha%7CEstado%20de%20Vigencia%5B5%2C1%5D%7CTema/Cultura%20y%20educaci%F3n/ciencia%20y%20tecnolog%EDa/ling%FC%EDstica%7COrganismo%5B5%2C1%5D%7CAutor%5B50%2C1%5D%7CJurisdicci%F3n%7CTribunal%5B5%2C1%5D%7CPublicaci%F3n%5B5%2C1%5D%7CColecci%F3n%20tem%E1tica%5B5%2C1%5D%7CTipo%20de%20Documento/Legislaci%F3n/Ley&t=20 |title=Ley Provincial Nº 5.598, que establece el guaraní como 'idioma oficial alternativo' de Corrientes }}</ref> and the [[Municipalities of Brazil|Brazilian city]] of [[Tacuru]] since 2010.<ref name="tacuru">{{Cite web |url=http://noticias.r7.com/brasil/noticias/cidade-do-mato-grosso-do-sul-adota-o-guarani-como-idioma-oficial-20100531.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131245/http://noticias.r7.com/brasil/noticias/cidade-do-mato-grosso-do-sul-adota-o-guarani-como-idioma-oficial-20100531.html |archive-date=16 January 2014 |lang=pt |title=Cidade de Mato Grosso do Sul adota o guarani como segundo idioma oficial |trans-title=City in Mato Grosso do Sul adopts Guarani as second official language |website=R7 Notícias}}</ref> Guarani is also one of the three official languages of [[Mercosur]], alongside Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mercosur.int/buscarenmarco.jsp?url=http%3A//200.40.51.218/SAM/GestDoc/PubWeb.nsf/Busqueda%3FOpenAgent%26TextoBusqueda%3Dguarani%26modulo%3DNormativa%26ModuloBusqueda%3DNormativa%26lang%3DESP%20 |title=Incorporación del Guaraní como Idioma del Mercosur |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225063003/http://www.mercosur.int/buscarenmarco.jsp?url=http%3A%2F%2F200.40.51.218%2FSAM%2FGestDoc%2FPubWeb.nsf%2FBusqueda%3FOpenAgent&TextoBusqueda=guarani&modulo=Normativa&ModuloBusqueda=Normativa&lang=ESP%20 |archive-date=25 December 2013 |website=MERCOSUR official page |lang=es}}</ref> | ||
Guarani is one of the most widely spoken [[indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American language]]s and remains commonly used among the Paraguayan people and neighboring communities. This is unique among American languages; [[language shift]] towards European colonial languages (in this case, the other [[official language]] of [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) has otherwise been a nearly universal phenomenon in the [[Americas|Western Hemisphere]], but Paraguayans have maintained their traditional language while also adopting Spanish. | Guarani is one of the most widely spoken [[indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American language]]s and remains commonly used among the Paraguayan people and neighboring communities. This is unique among American languages; [[language shift]] towards European colonial languages (in this case, the other [[official language]] of [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) has otherwise been a nearly universal phenomenon in the [[Americas|Western Hemisphere]], but Paraguayans have maintained their traditional language while also adopting Spanish. | ||
The name "Guarani" is generally used for the official language of Paraguay. However, this is part of a [[dialect chain]], most of whose [[Guarani dialects|components]] are also often called Guarani. | The name "Guarani" is generally used for the official language of Paraguay. However, this is part of a [[dialect chain]], most of whose [[Guarani dialects|components]] are also often called Guarani.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}} | ||
== History == | == History == | ||
| Line 51: | Line 51: | ||
By and large, the Guarani of the Jesuits shied away from direct phonological loans from Spanish. Instead, the missionaries relied on the agglutinative nature of the language to formulate new precise translations or [[calque]] terms from Guarani morphemes. This process often led the Jesuits to employ complicated, highly synthetic terms to convey European concepts.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Thun |first=Harald |title=La hispanización del guaraní jesuítico en 'lo espiritual' y en 'lo temporal'. Segunda parte: Los procedimientos |encyclopedia=Geschichte und Aktualität der deutschprachigen Guaraní-Philologie |editor-last1=Dietrich |editor-first1=Wolf |editor-last2=Symeonidis |editor-first2=Haralambos |date=2008 |location=Berlin |publisher=Lit Verlag |pages=141–169}}</ref> By contrast, the Guarani spoken outside of the missions was characterized by a free, unregulated flow of Hispanicisms; frequently, Spanish words and phrases were simply incorporated into Guarani with minimal phonological adaptation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} | By and large, the Guarani of the Jesuits shied away from direct phonological loans from Spanish. Instead, the missionaries relied on the agglutinative nature of the language to formulate new precise translations or [[calque]] terms from Guarani morphemes. This process often led the Jesuits to employ complicated, highly synthetic terms to convey European concepts.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Thun |first=Harald |title=La hispanización del guaraní jesuítico en 'lo espiritual' y en 'lo temporal'. Segunda parte: Los procedimientos |encyclopedia=Geschichte und Aktualität der deutschprachigen Guaraní-Philologie |editor-last1=Dietrich |editor-first1=Wolf |editor-last2=Symeonidis |editor-first2=Haralambos |date=2008 |location=Berlin |publisher=Lit Verlag |pages=141–169}}</ref> By contrast, the Guarani spoken outside of the missions was characterized by a free, unregulated flow of Hispanicisms; frequently, Spanish words and phrases were simply incorporated into Guarani with minimal phonological adaptation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} | ||
A good example of that phenomenon is found in the word "communion". The Jesuits, using their agglutinative strategy, rendered this word "{{lang| | A good example of that phenomenon is found in the word "communion". The Jesuits, using their agglutinative strategy, rendered this word "{{lang|gug|Tupârahava}}", a calque based on the word "{{lang|gug|Tupâ}}", meaning God.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Restivo |first1=Paulo |title=Vocabulario de la lengua guaraní |date=1724 |location=Madrid |language=es}}</ref> In modern Paraguayan Guarani, the same word is rendered "{{lang|gug|komuño}}".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Guarania |first1=Félix |title=Ñande Ayvu Tenonde Porãngue'i: Nuevo diccionario guaraní́-castellano, castellano-guaraní́: Avañe'ẽ-karaiñe'ẽ, Karaiñe'ẽ-avañe'ẽ |date=2008 |publisher=Servilibro |location=Asunción}}</ref> | ||
Following the out-migration from the reductions, these two distinct dialects of Guarani came into extensive [[Language contact|contact]] for the first time. The vast majority of speakers abandoned the less colloquial, highly regulated Jesuit variant in favor of the variety that evolved from actual use by speakers in Paraguay.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Melia |first1=Bartomeu |title=La lengua guaraní́ en el Paraguay colonial |date=2003 |publisher=CEPAG |location=Asunción |language=es |isbn=9789992584958}}</ref> This contemporary form of spoken Guarani is known as [[Jopará]], meaning "mixture" in Guarani.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} | Following the out-migration from the reductions, these two distinct dialects of Guarani came into extensive [[Language contact|contact]] for the first time. The vast majority of speakers abandoned the less colloquial, highly regulated Jesuit variant in favor of the variety that evolved from actual use by speakers in Paraguay.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Melia |first1=Bartomeu |title=La lengua guaraní́ en el Paraguay colonial |date=2003 |publisher=CEPAG |location=Asunción |language=es |isbn=9789992584958}}</ref> This contemporary form of spoken Guarani is known as [[Jopará]], meaning "mixture" in Guarani.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} | ||
| Line 64: | Line 64: | ||
Jopará, the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. [[Code-switching]] between the two languages takes place on a spectrum in which more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, and more Guarani is used in art and in everyday life.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/Ling450ch/reports/Guarani1.html |title= Guaraní: The Language and People |last= Page |first= Nathan |date= 6 September 1999 |website= [[Brigham Young University]] Department of Linguistics |access-date= 1 February 2019}}</ref> | Jopará, the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. [[Code-switching]] between the two languages takes place on a spectrum in which more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, and more Guarani is used in art and in everyday life.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/Ling450ch/reports/Guarani1.html |title= Guaraní: The Language and People |last= Page |first= Nathan |date= 6 September 1999 |website= [[Brigham Young University]] Department of Linguistics |access-date= 1 February 2019}}</ref> | ||
Guarani is also an official language of Bolivia and of [[Corrientes Province]] in Argentina.<ref | Guarani is also an official language of Bolivia and of [[Corrientes Province]] in Argentina.<ref name="Ley5598" /> | ||
== Phonology == | == Phonology == | ||
Guarani syllables consist of a consonant plus a vowel or a vowel alone; syllables ending in a consonant or two or more consonants together do not occur. This is represented as ''(C)V''. | Guarani syllables consist of a consonant plus a vowel or a vowel alone; syllables ending in a consonant or containing two or more consonants together do not occur. This is represented as ''(C)V''. | ||
In the below table, the IPA value is shown. The orthography is shown in angle brackets below, if different. | In the below table, the IPA value is shown. The orthography is shown in angle brackets below, if different. | ||
| Line 76: | Line 73: | ||
=== Consonants === | === Consonants === | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | ||
|+ Guarani consonants<ref>{{ | |+ Guarani consonants<ref>{{Cite book |last=Estigarribia |first=Bruno |title=A Grammar of Paraguayan Guarani |publisher=London: UCL Press |year=2020 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10107709/1/A-Grammar-of-Paraguayan-Guarani.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Rachel |title=Guaraní Voiceless Stops in Oral versus Nasal Contexts: An Acoustical Study |publisher=University of Southern California |year=1999 |journal=In Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=63-94 |jstor=44526233}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | ||
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] | ! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] | ||
! rowspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] | ! rowspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] | ||
! rowspan="2" | [[ | ! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Alveo-<br>palatal]] | ||
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] | ! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] | ||
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] | ! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] | ||
| Line 88: | Line 85: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ᵐb}}~{{IPA link| | | rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ᵐb}} ~ {{IPA link|m}} | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ⁿd}}~{{IPA link| | | rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ⁿd}} ~ {{IPA link|n}} | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link| | | rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʝ}} ~ {{IPA link|ɲ}} | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ᵑɡ}}~{{IPA link|ŋ | | rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ᵑɡ}} ~ {{IPA link|ŋ}} | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ᵑɡʷ}}~{{IPA link|ŋʷ | | rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ᵑɡʷ}} ~ {{IPA link|ŋʷ}} | ||
| rowspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 102: | Line 99: | ||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|k}} | | {{IPA link|k}} | ||
| {{IPA link|kʷ | | {{IPA link|kʷ}} | ||
| {{IPA link|ʔ | | {{IPA link|ʔ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]] | ! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]] | ||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|s}} | | {{IPA link|s}} | ||
| {{IPA link| | | {{IPA link|ʃ}} | ||
| colspan="3" | {{IPA link|x}} ~ {{IPA link | | colspan="3" | {{IPA link|x}} ~ {{IPA link|h}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]] | ! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]] | ||
| {{IPA link|ʋ}} {{ | | {{IPA link|ʋ}} ~ {{IPA link|ʋ̃}} | ||
| {{IPA link|l}} ~ {{IPA link|l̃}} | |||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|ɰ}} ~ {{IPA link|ɰ̃}} | |||
| {{IPA link|ɰ}} ~ {{IPA link|ɰ̃ | | {{IPA link|w}} ~ {{IPA link|w̃}} | ||
| {{IPA link|w}} ~ {{IPA link|w̃ | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | ! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | ||
| | | | ||
| {{IPA link|ɾ}} {{ | | {{IPA link|ɾ}} ~ {{IPA link|ɾ̃}} | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 130: | Line 127: | ||
The [[voiced]] consonants have oral [[allophone]]s (left) before oral vowels, and [[Nasalization|nasal]] allophones (right) before [[nasal vowel]]s. The oral allophones of the voiced stops are [[prenasalized]]. | The [[voiced]] consonants have oral [[allophone]]s (left) before oral vowels, and [[Nasalization|nasal]] allophones (right) before [[nasal vowel]]s. The oral allophones of the voiced stops are [[prenasalized]]. | ||
Some linguists additionally include the phoneme {{IPA|/ⁿt/}} (written {{angbr|nt}}), though it is considered controversial as it appears exclusively in the suffix ''-nte''.{{sfnp|Barrera|2015|p=25}} Nonetheless, it is typically included in the Guarani alphabet. | |||
Oral {{ | Oral {{IPAslink|ʝ}} may be realized as {{IPAblink|j}}, {{IPAblink|ɟ}}, {{IPAblink|ɟʝ}}, {{IPAblink|dʒ}}, {{IPAblink|ʒ}}, depending on the dialect, but the nasal allophone is always {{IPAblink|ɲ}}. | ||
The [[palato-alveolar]] sibilant {{IPAslink|ʃ}} is often articulated closer to [[alveolo-palatal]] {{IPAblink|ɕ}}.{{sfnp|Estigarribia|2020|p=33}} | |||
The dorsal fricative is in free variation between {{IPAblink|x}} and {{IPAblink|h}}. | The dorsal fricative is in free variation between {{IPAblink|x}} and {{IPAblink|h}}. | ||
{{ | The approximant {{IPAslink|ɰ}} may be nasalized {{IPA|[ɰ̃]}} and partially labialized {{IPA|[ɰʷ]}}, and may also be realized as a fricative {{IPAblink|ɣ}} or a fully labialized approximant {{IPAblink|w}}.{{efn|{{harvcoltxt|Walker|1999}} does not make a distinction between {{IPA|[ɰʷ]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}, while {{harvcoltxt|Estigarribia|2020}} does. While noted as possible, neither source provides an example of the nasalized approximant occurring without labialization.}} | ||
From Spanish loanwords, what had originally been a typical alveolar trill {{IPAslink|r}} (written {{angbr|rr}}) became a retroflex sibilant {{IPAslink|ʐ}}. The alveolar lateral {{IPAslink|l}} also entered Guarani phonology through Spanish loanwords, but is now a typical phoneme (unlike {{IPA|/ʐ/}}, which is considered marginal).{{sfnp|Estigarribia|2020|p=34}} The consonants {{IPAslink|f}}, {{IPAslink|ð}}, and {{IPAslink|ʎ}} may also appear in loanwords.{{sfnp|Barrera|2015|p=24}} | |||
All syllables are open, viz. CV or V, ending in a vowel. | All syllables are open, viz. CV or V, ending in a vowel. | ||
=== Glottal stop === | === Glottal stop === | ||
The [[glottal stop]], called {{lang| | The [[glottal stop]], called {{lang|gug|puso}} in Guarani, is only written between vowels, but occurs phonetically before vowel-initial words. Because of this, some words have several glottal stops near each other that consequently undergo a number of different [[dissimilation]] techniques. For example, "I drink water" {{lang|gug|ʼaʼyʼu}} is pronounced {{lang|gug|hayʼu}}. This suggests that irregularity in verb forms derives from regular sound change processes in the history of Guarani. There also seems to be some degree of variation between how much the glottal stop is dropped (for example {{lang|gug|aruʼuka > aruuka > aruka}} for "I bring"). It is possible that word-internal glottal stops may have been retained from fossilized compounds where the second component was a vowel-initial (and therefore glottal stop–initial) root.<ref name=Ayala>{{cite book |last=Ayala |first=José Valentín |year=2000 |title=Gramática Guaraní |location=Asunción |publisher=Centro Editorial Paraguayo S.R.L. |page=19 |oclc=50608420}}</ref> | ||
=== Vowels === | === Vowels === | ||
{{IPA|/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/}} correspond more or less to the Spanish and IPA equivalents, although sometimes the open-mid allophones {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, {{IPAblink|ɔ}} are used more frequently. The grapheme {{angbr|y}} represents the vowel {{IPAslink|ɨ}} | {{IPA|/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/}} correspond more or less to the Spanish and IPA equivalents, although sometimes the open-mid allophones {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, {{IPAblink|ɔ}} are used more frequently. The grapheme {{angbr|y}} represents the vowel {{IPAslink|ɨ}}.{{efn|Instead of a [[close central unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/ɨ/}}, some sources, such as {{harvcoltxt|Walker|1999}}, note a [[near-close near-back unrounded vowel]], transcribed with {{IPA|/ɯ/}}.}} Considering nasality, the vowel system is perfectly symmetrical, each oral vowel having a nasal counterpart (most systems with nasals have fewer nasals than orals). | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | ||
|+ | |+ Vowels | ||
! | ! !! [[Front vowel|Front]]!! [[Central vowel|Central]]!! [[Back vowel|Back]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! [[Close vowel|Close]] | ||
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|ĩ}} | |||
| {{IPA link|i}} {{ | | {{IPA link|ɨ}} {{IPA link|ɨ̃}} | ||
| {{IPA link|ɨ}} {{ | | {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|ũ}} | ||
| {{IPA link|u}} {{ | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | ||
| {{IPA link| | | {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|ẽ}} | ||
| | |||
| {{IPA link| | | {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|õ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! [[Open vowel|Open]] | ||
| | |||
| {{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|ã}} | |||
| {{IPA link|a}} | | | ||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 186: | Line 180: | ||
That is, for a word with a single stressed vowel, all voiced segments will be either oral or nasal, while voiceless consonants are unaffected, as in oral {{IPA|/ᵐbotɨ/}} vs nasal {{IPA|/mõtɨ̃/}}. | That is, for a word with a single stressed vowel, all voiced segments will be either oral or nasal, while voiceless consonants are unaffected, as in oral {{IPA|/ᵐbotɨ/}} vs nasal {{IPA|/mõtɨ̃/}}. | ||
== Orthography == | |||
{{Main|Guarani alphabet}} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: auto;" | |||
|- | |||
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="33"| '''[[Capital letters|Majuscule forms]]''' (also called '''uppercase''' or '''capital letters''') | |||
|- | |||
|width="3%"|[[A]]||width="3%"|[[Ã]]||width="3%"|[[Ch (digraph)|Ch]]||width="3%"|[[E]]||width="3%"|[[Ẽ]]||width="3%"|[[G]]||width="3%"|[[G̃]]||width="3%"|[[H]]||width="3%"|[[I]]||width="3%"|[[Ĩ]]||width="3%"|[[J]]||width="3%"|[[K]]||width="3%"|[[L]]||width="3%"|[[M]]||width="3%"|[[Mb (digraph)|Mb]]||width="3%"|[[N]]||width="3%"|[[Nd (digraph)|Nd]]||width="3%"|[[Ng (digraph)|Ng]]||width="3%"|[[Nt (digraph)|Nt]]||width="3%"|[[Ñ]]||width="3%"|[[O]]||width="3%"|[[Õ]]||width="3%"|[[P]]||width="3%"|[[R]]||width="3%"|[[Rr (digraph)|Rr]]||width="3%"|[[S]]||width="3%"|[[T]]||width="3%"|[[U]]||width="3%"|[[Ũ]]||width="3%"|[[V]]||width="3%"|[[Y]]||width="3%"|[[Ỹ]]||width="3%"|[[Modifier letter apostrophe|{{`}}]] | |||
|- | |||
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="33"| '''[[Lower case|Minuscule forms]]''' (also called '''lowercase''' or '''small letters''') | |||
|- | |||
|a||ã||ch||e||ẽ||g||g̃||h||i||ĩ||j||k||l||m||mb||n||nd||ng||nt||ñ||o||õ||p||r||rr||s||t||u||ũ||v||y||ỹ||{{`}} | |||
|- | |||
|bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="33"| '''[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values''' | |||
|- | |||
|a||ã||ʃ~ɕ||e||ẽ||ɰ~ɣ||ŋ||h||i||ĩ||ʝ~dʒ||k||l||m||ᵐb||n||ⁿd||ᵑɡ||ⁿt||ɲ||o||õ||p||ɾ||ʐ||s||t||u||ũ||ʋ||ɨ||ɨ̃||ʔ | |||
|} | |||
== Grammar == | == Grammar == | ||
| Line 191: | Line 202: | ||
=== Nouns === | === Nouns === | ||
Guarani exhibits nominal tense: past, expressed with {{lang| | Guarani exhibits nominal tense: past, expressed with {{lang|gug|-kue}}, and future, expressed with {{lang|gug|-rã}}. For example, {{lang|gug|tetã ruvichakue}} translates to "ex-president" while {{lang|gug|tetã ruvicharã}} translates to "president-elect." The past morpheme {{lang|gug|-kue}} is often translated as "ex-", "former", "abandoned", "what was once", or "one-time". These morphemes can even be combined to express the idea of something that was going to be but did not end up happening. So for example, {{lang|gug|paʼirãgue}} is "a person who studied to be a priest but didn't actually finish", or rather, "the ex-future priest". Some nouns use {{lang|gug|-re}} instead of {{lang|gug|-kue}} and others use {{lang|gug|-guã}} instead of {{lang|gug|-rã}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guasch |first=P. Antonio |title=El Idioma Guarnai: Gramática e Antología de Prosa y Verso |year=1956 |publisher=Casa América |location=Asunción |page=53}}</ref> | ||
=== Pronouns === | === Pronouns === | ||
| Line 204: | Line 215: | ||
! rowspan="2" | 1st person | ! rowspan="2" | 1st person | ||
! inclusive | ! inclusive | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{lang| | | rowspan="2" | {{lang|gug|che}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|ñande}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! exclusive | ! exclusive | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|ore}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | 2nd person | ! colspan="2" | 2nd person | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nde}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|peẽ}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | 3rd person | ! colspan="2" | 3rd person | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|haʼe}} | ||
| {{itco|{{lang| | | {{itco|{{lang|gug|haʼekuéra/ hikuái}}}}{{efn-lr|{{lang|gug|hikuái}} is a post-verbal pronoun ({{lang|gug|oHecha hikuái}} 'they see')}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{notelist-lr}} | {{notelist-lr}} | ||
Reflexive pronoun: {{lang| | Reflexive pronoun: {{lang|gug|je}}: {{lang|gug|ahecha}} ("I look"), {{lang|gug|ajehecha}} ("I look at myself") | ||
=== Conjugation === | === Conjugation === | ||
Guarani stems can be divided into a number of conjugation classes, which are called {{lang| | Guarani stems can be divided into a number of conjugation classes, which are called {{lang|gug|areal}} (with the subclass {{lang|gug|aireal}}) and {{lang|gug|chendal}}. The names for these classes stem from the names of the prefixes for 1st and 2nd person singular. | ||
The {{lang| | The {{lang|gug|areal}} conjugation is used to convey that the participant is [[Agent (grammar)|actively involved]], whereas the {{lang|gug|chendal}} conjugation is used to convey that the participant is the [[Patient (grammar)|undergoer]]. However, the {{lang|gug|areal}} conjugation is also used if an intransitive verb expresses [[Aktionsart|an event as opposed to a state]], for example {{Lang|gug|manó}} 'die', and even with a verb such as {{Lang|gug|ké}} 'sleep'. In addition, all borrowed Spanish verbs are adopted as {{lang|gug|areal}} as opposed to borrowed adjectives, which take {{lang|gug|chendal}}.<ref>{{cite thesis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302131251/http://www.ling.su.se/gu/kursmaterial/311_4/active.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2008 |url=http://www.ling.su.se/gu/kursmaterial/311_4/active.pdf |last=Andréasson |first=Daniel |year=2001 |title=Active languages |publisher=Stockholm University |pages=18–20 |degree=BA}}</ref> Intransitive verbs can take either conjugation, transitive verbs normally take {{lang|gug|areal}}, but can take {{lang|gug|chendal}} for [[habitual aspect|habitual]] readings. Nouns can also be conjugated, but only as {{lang|gug|chendal}}. This conveys a predicative possessive reading.<ref name=Nordhoff2004>{{cite journal |last=Nordhoff |first=Sebastian |year=2004 |title=Nomen-Verb-Distinktion im Guarani |editor-last=Sasse |editor-first=Hans-Jürgen |location=Köln |publisher=Universität zu Köln |journal=Arbeitspapier |volume=48 |issn=1615-1496 |lang=de |url=https://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/opus4/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/22366/file/AP_48_Nordhoff_Nomen_ver_Distinktion_im_Guarani.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612022954/http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/opus4/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/22366/file/AP_48_Nordhoff_Nomen_ver_Distinktion_im_Guarani.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> | ||
Furthermore, the conjugations vary slightly according to the stem being oral or nasal. | Furthermore, the conjugations vary slightly according to the stem being oral or nasal. | ||
| Line 233: | Line 244: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3" | pronoun | ! rowspan="3" | pronoun | ||
! colspan="2" | {{lang| | ! colspan="2" | {{lang|gug|areal}} | ||
! rowspan="2" | {{lang| | ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|gug|aireal}} | ||
! rowspan="2" | {{lang| | ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|gug|chendal}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! oral | ! oral | ||
! nasal | ! nasal | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|guata}} {{gloss|to walk}}}} | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|ñeʼẽ}} {{gloss|to speak}}}} | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|puru}} {{gloss|to use}}}} | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|tuicha}} {{gloss|to be big}}}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|che}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''a'''-guata}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''a'''-ñeʼẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ai'''-puru}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''che'''-tuicha}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|ñande}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ja'''-guata}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ña'''-ñeʼẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''jai'''-puru}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ñande'''-tuicha}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|ore}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ro'''-guata}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ro'''-ñeʼẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''roi'''-puru}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''ore'''-tuicha}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nde}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''re'''-guata}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''re'''-ñeʼẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''rei'''-puru}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''nde'''-tuicha}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|peẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''pe'''-guata}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''pe'''-ñeʼẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''pei'''-puru}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''pende'''-tuicha}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|haʼe(kuéra)}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''o'''-guata}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''o'''-ñeʼẽ}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''oi'''-puru}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|'''i'''-tuicha}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== Negation ==== | ==== Negation ==== | ||
Negation is indicated by a [[circumfix]] {{lang| | Negation is indicated by a [[circumfix]] {{lang|gug|n(d)(V)-...-(r)i}} in Guarani. The preverbal portion of the circumfix is {{lang|gug|nd-}} for oral bases and {{lang|gug|n-}} for nasal bases. For 2nd person singular, an [[epenthetic]] {{lang|gug|-e-}} is inserted before the base, for 1st person plural inclusive, an epenthetic {{lang|gug|-a-}} is inserted. | ||
The postverbal portion is {{lang| | The postverbal portion is {{lang|gug|-ri}} for bases ending in {{lang|gug|-i}}, and {{lang|gug|-i}} for all others. However, in spoken Guarani, the {{lang|gug|-ri}} portion of the circumfix is frequently omitted for bases ending in {{lang|gug|-i}}. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 293: | Line 304: | ||
! With ending in "i" | ! With ending in "i" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|japo}} {{gloss|do, make}}}} | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|kororõ}} {{gloss|roar, snore}}}} | ||
! {{nobold|{{lang| | ! {{nobold|{{lang|gug|jupi}} {{gloss|go up, rise}}}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-ajapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|n-akororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-ajupí-ri}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nde-rejapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|ne-rekororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nde-rejupí-ri}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-ojapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|n-okororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-ojupí-ri}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nda-jajapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|na-ñakororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nda-jajupí-ri}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-orojapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|n-orokororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-orojupí-ri}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nda-pejapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|na-pekororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nda-pejupí-ri}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-ojapó-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|n-okororõ-i}} | ||
| {{lang| | | {{lang|gug|nd-ojupí-ri}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
The negation can be used in all tenses, but for future or irrealis reference, the normal tense marking is replaced by {{lang| | The negation can be used in all tenses, but for future or irrealis reference, the normal tense marking is replaced by {{lang|gug|moʼã}}, resulting in {{lang|gug|n(d)(V)}}-base-{{lang|gug|moʼã-i}} as in {{lang|gug|Ndajapomoʼãi}}, "I won't do it". | ||
There are also other negatives, such as: {{lang| | There are also other negatives, such as: {{lang|gug|ani}}, {{lang|gug|ỹhỹ}}, {{lang|gug|nahániri}}, {{lang|gug|naumbre}}, {{lang|gug|naʼanga}}. | ||
=== Tense and aspect morphemes === | === Tense and aspect morphemes === | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-ramo}}''': marks extreme proximity of the action, often translating to "just barely": {{lang|gug|Oguahẽramo}}, "He just barely arrived".<ref name="Graham, 1969">{{cite book |last=Graham |first=Charles R. |title=Guarani Intermediate Course |year=1969 |publisher=Brigham Young University |location=Provo}}</ref>{{rp|198}} | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-kuri}}''': marks proximity of the action. {{lang|gug|Haʼukuri}}, "I just ate" ({{lang|gug|ha'u}} irregular first person singular form of {{lang|gug|u}}, "to eat"). It can also be used after a pronoun, as in {{lang|gug|ha che kuri, che poʼa}}, "and about what happened to me, I was lucky". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-vaʼekue}}''': indicates a fact that occurred long ago and asserts that it's really truth. {{lang|gug|Okañyvaʼekue}}, "he/she went missing a long time ago". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-raʼe}}''': tells that the speaker was doubtful before but he's sure at the moment he speaks. {{lang|gug|Nde rejoguaraʼe peteĩ taʼangambyry pyahu}}, "so then you bought a new television after all". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-rakaʼe}}''': expresses the uncertainty of a perfect-aspect fact. {{lang|gug|Peẽ peikorakaʼe Asunción-pe}}, "I think you lived in Asunción for a while". Nevertheless, nowadays this morpheme has lost some of its meaning, having a correspondence with {{lang|gug|raʼe}} and {{lang|gug|vaʼekue}}. | ||
The verb form without suffixes at all is a [[present tense|present]] somewhat [[aorist]]: {{lang| | The verb form without suffixes at all is a [[present tense|present]] somewhat [[aorist]]: {{lang|gug|Upe ára resẽ reho mombyry}}, "that day you got out and you went far". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-ta}}''': is a [[future tense|future]] of immediate happening, it's also used as authoritarian [[imperative mood|imperative]]. {{lang|gug|Oujeýta ag̃aite}}, "he/she'll come back soon". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-ma}}''': has the meaning of "already". {{lang|gug|Ajapóma}}, "I already did it". | ||
These two suffixes can be added together: {{lang| | These two suffixes can be added together: {{lang|gug|ahátama}}, "I'm already going". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-vaʼerã}}''': indicates something not imminent or something that must be done for social or moral reasons, in this case corresponding to the [[German language|German]] [[modal verb]] {{lang|de|sollen}}. {{lang|gug|Péa ojejapovaʼerã}}, "that must be done". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-ne}}''': indicates something that probably will happen or something the speaker imagines that is happening. It correlates in a certain way with the [[subjunctive]] of [[Spanish Language|Spanish]]. {{lang|gug|Mitãnguéra ág̃a og̃uahéne hógape}}, "the children are probably coming home now". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-hína}}''', '''{{lang|gug|-ína}}''' after nasal words: continual action at the moment of speaking, present and pluperfect continuous or emphatic. {{lang|gug|Rojatapyhína}}, "we're making fire"; {{lang|gug|che haʼehína}}, "it's ME!". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-vo}}''': it has a subtle difference with {{lang|gug|-hína}} in which {{lang|gug|-vo}} indicates not necessarily what's being done at the moment of speaking. {{lang|gug|ambaʼapóvo}}, "I'm working (not necessarily now)". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-pota}}''': indicates proximity immediately before the start of the process. {{lang|gug|Ajukapota}}, "I'm near the point at which I will start to kill" or "I'm just about to kill". (A particular sandhi rule is applied here: if the verbs ends in {{lang|gug|-po}}, the suffix changes to {{lang|gug|-mbota}}; {{lang|gug|ajapombota}}, "I'll do it right now"). | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-pa}}''': indicates emphatically that a process has all finished. {{lang|gug|Amboparapa pe ogyke}}, "I painted the wall completely". | ||
This suffix can be joined with {{lang| | This suffix can be joined with {{lang|gug|-ma}}, making up {{lang|gug|-páma}}: {{lang|gug|ñande jaikuaapáma nde remimoʼã}}, "now we came to know all your thought". | ||
* '''{{lang| | * '''{{lang|gug|-mi}}''': customary action in the past: {{lang|gug|Oumi}}, "He used to come a lot". | ||
These are unstressed suffixes: {{lang| | These are unstressed suffixes: {{lang|gug|-ta, -ma, -ne, -vo, -mi}}; so the stress goes upon the last syllable of the verb or the last stressed syllable. | ||
=== Other verbal morphemes === | === Other verbal morphemes === | ||
* '''{{Lang| | * '''{{Lang|gug|-se}}''': desiderative suffix: {{Lang|gug|(Che) añemoaranduse}}, "I want to study".<ref name="Blair 1">{{cite book|last=Blair|first=Robert|title=Guarani Basic Course: Book 1|year=1968|page=50|display-authors=etal}}</ref> | ||
* '''{{Lang| | * '''{{Lang|gug|te-}}''': desiderative prefix: {{Lang|gug|Ahasa}}, "I pass", {{Lang|gug|Tahasa}}, "I would like to pass." {{Lang|gug|te-}} is the underlying form. It is similar to the negative in that it has the same vowel alternations and deletions, depending on the person marker on the verb.<ref name="Graham, 1969" />{{rp|108}} | ||
== Spanish loans in Guarani == | == Spanish loans in Guarani == | ||
| Line 369: | Line 380: | ||
| rowspan="3" | animals | | rowspan="3" | animals | ||
|| {{lang|es|vaca}} ||{{IPA|/baka/}} | || {{lang|es|vaca}} ||{{IPA|/baka/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|vaka}} ||{{IPA|/ʋaka/}}|| cow | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|caballo}} ||{{IPA|/kabaʝo/}} | || {{lang|es|caballo}} ||{{IPA|/kabaʝo/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|kavaju}} ||{{IPA|/kaʋaᵈju/}}|| horse | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|cabra}} ||{{IPA|/kabɾa/}} | || {{lang|es|cabra}} ||{{IPA|/kabɾa/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|kavara}} ||{{IPA|/kaʋaɾa/}}|| goat | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="3" | religion | | rowspan="3" | religion | ||
|| {{lang|es|cruz}} || {{IPA|/kɾuθ/}} | || {{lang|es|cruz}} || {{IPA|/kɾuθ/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|kurusu}} || {{IPA|/kuɾusu/}}|| cross | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|Jesucristo}}||{{IPA|/xesukɾisto/}} | || {{lang|es|Jesucristo}}||{{IPA|/xesukɾisto/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|Hesukrísto}}||{{IPA|/xesuˈkɾisto/}}|| Jesus Christ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|Pablo}} || {{IPA|/pablo/}} | || {{lang|es|Pablo}} || {{IPA|/pablo/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|Pavlo}} || {{IPA|/paʋlo/}} || Paul (saint) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="3" | place names | | rowspan="3" | place names | ||
|| {{lang|es|Australia}} || {{IPA|/austɾalia/}} | || {{lang|es|Australia}} || {{IPA|/austɾalia/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|Autaralia}} || {{IPA|/autaɾalia/}} || Australia | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|Islandia}} || {{IPA|/islandia/}} | || {{lang|es|Islandia}} || {{IPA|/islandia/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|Iylanda}} || {{IPA|/iɨlaⁿda/}} || Iceland | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|Portugal}} || {{IPA|/poɾtugal/}} | || {{lang|es|Portugal}} || {{IPA|/poɾtugal/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|Poytuga}} || {{IPA|/poɨtuɰa/}} || Portugal | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="3" | foods | | rowspan="3" | foods | ||
|| {{lang|es|queso}} || {{IPA|/keso/}} | || {{lang|es|queso}} || {{IPA|/keso/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|kesu}} || {{IPA|/kesu/}} || cheese | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|azúcar}} || {{IPA|/aθukaɾ/}} | || {{lang|es|azúcar}} || {{IPA|/aθukaɾ/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|asuka}} || {{IPA|/asuka/}} || sugar | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|morcilla}} || {{IPA|/moɾθiʝa/}} | || {{lang|es|morcilla}} || {{IPA|/moɾθiʝa/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|mbusia}} || {{IPA|/ᵐbusia/}} || blood sausage | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="3" | herbs/spices | | rowspan="3" | herbs/spices | ||
|| {{lang|es|canela}} || {{IPA|/kanela/}} | || {{lang|es|canela}} || {{IPA|/kanela/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|kanéla}} || {{IPA|/kaˈnela/}} || cinnamon | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|culantro}} || {{IPA|/kulantɾo/}} | || {{lang|es|culantro}} || {{IPA|/kulantɾo/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|kuratũ}} || {{IPA|/kũɾ̃ãtũ/}} || cilantro (US), coriander (UK) | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| {{lang|es|anís}} || {{IPA|/aˈnis/}} | || {{lang|es|anís}} || {{IPA|/aˈnis/}} | ||
|| {{lang| | || {{lang|gug|ani}} || {{IPA|/ani/}} || anise | ||
|} | |} | ||
== Guarani loans in English == | == Guarani loans in English == | ||
English has adopted a small number of words from Guarani (or perhaps the related [[Tupi language|Tupi]]) via Portuguese, mostly the names of animals or plants. "[[Jaguar]]" comes from {{lang| | English has adopted a small number of words from Guarani (or perhaps the related [[Tupi language|Tupi]]) via Portuguese, mostly the names of animals or plants. "[[Jaguar]]" comes from {{lang|gug|jaguarete}} and "[[piraña]]" comes from {{lang|gug|pira aña}} ("tooth fish" Tupi: {{lang|tup|pirá}} 'fish', {{lang|tup|aña}} 'tooth'). Other words are: "[[agouti]]" from {{lang|gug|akuti}} (which means "individual that eats standing up"),<ref>[[Teodoro Fernandes Sampaio|Teodoro Sampaio]], [https://bdor.sibi.ufrj.br/handle/doc/429 O tupi na geografia nacional], p. 228</ref><ref>[https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/cutia Infopédia]</ref> "[[tapir]]" from {{lang|gug|tapira}}, "[[coati]]" from ''kuatĩ'' (which means "what is scratched, or gashed; what has stripes across the body"),<ref>[[Teodoro Fernandes Sampaio|Teodoro Sampaio]], [https://bdor.sibi.ufrj.br/handle/doc/429 O tupi na geografia nacional], p. 308</ref> "[[açaí]]" from {{lang|gug|ĩwasaʼi}} ("[fruit that] cries or expels water"), "[[warrah]]" from {{lang|gug|aguará}} meaning "fox", and "[[margay]]" from {{lang|gug|[[:gn:Mbarakaja|mbarakaja'y]]}} meaning "small cat". [[Jacaranda]] | ||
(y-acã-ratã, "that which has a firm core or heartwood"<ref>[[Teodoro Fernandes Sampaio|Teodoro Sampaio]], [https://bdor.sibi.ufrj.br/handle/doc/429 O tupi na geografia nacional], p. 263</ref> or "hard-headed"),<ref>[https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/jacaranda Infopédia]</ref> [[guarana]] and [[manioc]] are words of Guarani or Tupi–Guarani origin.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Yliana |last=Rodríguez |title=Vestiges of an Amerindian-European language contact: Guarani loanwords in Uruguayan Spanish |conference=18e Rencontres Jeunes Chercheurs en Sciences du Langage |date= 11–12 June 2015 |location=Paris |id=hal-01495095 |page=13 |url=https://hal-univ-paris3.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01495095}}</ref> [[Ipecac|Ipecacuanha]] (the name of a medicinal drug) comes from a homonymous Tupi–Guarani name that can be rendered as {{lang| | (y-acã-ratã, "that which has a firm core or heartwood"<ref>[[Teodoro Fernandes Sampaio|Teodoro Sampaio]], [https://bdor.sibi.ufrj.br/handle/doc/429 O tupi na geografia nacional], p. 263</ref> or "hard-headed"),<ref>[https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/lingua-portuguesa/jacaranda Infopédia]</ref> [[guarana]] and [[manioc]] are words of Guarani or Tupi–Guarani origin.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Yliana |last=Rodríguez |title=Vestiges of an Amerindian-European language contact: Guarani loanwords in Uruguayan Spanish |conference=18e Rencontres Jeunes Chercheurs en Sciences du Langage |date= 11–12 June 2015 |location=Paris |id=hal-01495095 |page=13 |url=https://hal-univ-paris3.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01495095}}</ref> [[Ipecac|Ipecacuanha]] (the name of a medicinal drug) comes from a homonymous Tupi–Guarani name that can be rendered as {{lang|gug|ipe-kaa-guené}}, meaning a creeping plant that makes one vomit.<ref>{{cite OED |ipecacuanha}}</ref> "[[Cougar]]" is borrowed from Guarani ''guazu ara''.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, ''Cougar''.</ref> | ||
The name of Paraguay is itself a Guarani word, as is the name of [[Uruguay]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=George Gaylord|year=1941|title=Vernacular Names of South American Mammals|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=22|issue=1|pages=1–17|doi=10.2307/1374677 |jstor=1374677}}, p.2.</ref> However, the exact meaning of either placename is subject to varied interpretations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rona|first=José Pedro|year=1960|title=Uruguay (The Problem of Etymology of Place Names of Guarani Origin)|journal=Names|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.1.1|doi-access=free}}. pp=2-3.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Holmer|first=Nils M.|year=1960|title=Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. I|journal=Names|volume=8|issue=3|pages=133–149|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.3.133|url=https://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/download/308/307|access-date=2 September 2024|doi-access=free}}, p.147.</ref> (''See'': [[List of country-name etymologies#P|List of country-name etymologies]].) | The name of Paraguay is itself a Guarani word, as is the name of [[Uruguay]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=George Gaylord|year=1941|title=Vernacular Names of South American Mammals|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=22|issue=1|pages=1–17|doi=10.2307/1374677 |jstor=1374677}}, p.2.</ref> However, the exact meaning of either placename is subject to varied interpretations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rona|first=José Pedro|year=1960|title=Uruguay (The Problem of Etymology of Place Names of Guarani Origin)|journal=Names|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.1.1|doi-access=free}}. pp=2-3.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Holmer|first=Nils M.|year=1960|title=Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. I|journal=Names|volume=8|issue=3|pages=133–149|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.3.133|url=https://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/download/308/307|access-date=2 September 2024|doi-access=free}}, p.147.</ref> (''See'': [[List of country-name etymologies#P|List of country-name etymologies]].) | ||
| Line 426: | Line 437: | ||
== Example text == | == Example text == | ||
Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Guarani: | Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Guarani: | ||
:{{lang| | :{{lang|gug|Mayma yvypóra ou ko yvy ári iñapytyʼyre ha eteĩcha tekoruvicharenda ha akatúape jeguerekópe; ha ikatu rupi oikuaa añetéva ha añeteʼyva, iporãva ha ivaíva, tekotevẽ pehenguéicha oiko oñondivekuéra.}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/guarani.htm |title=Guarani language, alphabet and pronunciation |publisher=Omniglot.com |access-date=26 August 2013}}</ref> | ||
:{{IPA|[maɨˈma ɨʋɨˈpoɾa oˈu ko ɨʋˈɨ ˈaɾi iɲapɨtɨʔɨˈɾe xa ẽtẽˈĩɕã tekoɾuʋiɕaɾeˈⁿda xa akaˈtuape ᵈjeweɾeˈkope; xa ikaˈtu ɾupi oikuaˈa aɲeˈteʋa xa aɲeteʔɨˈʋa, ĩpõɾ̃ˈãʋã xa iʋaˈiʋa tẽkõtẽˈʋẽ pexeˈᵑgʷeiɕa oiˈko oɲoⁿdiʋeˈkʷeɾa]|}} | :{{IPA|[maɨˈma ɨʋɨˈpoɾa oˈu ko ɨʋˈɨ ˈaɾi iɲapɨtɨʔɨˈɾe xa ẽtẽˈĩɕã tekoɾuʋiɕaɾeˈⁿda xa akaˈtuape ᵈjeweɾeˈkope; xa ikaˈtu ɾupi oikuaˈa aɲeˈteʋa xa aɲeteʔɨˈʋa, ĩpõɾ̃ˈãʋã xa iʋaˈiʋa tẽkõtẽˈʋẽ pexeˈᵑgʷeiɕa oiˈko oɲoⁿdiʋeˈkʷeɾa]|}} | ||
| Line 433: | Line 444: | ||
== Literature == | == Literature == | ||
A more modern translation of the whole [[Bible]] into Guarani is known as {{lang| | A more modern translation of the whole [[Bible]] into Guarani is known as {{lang|gug|Ñandejara Ñeʼẽ}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ultimahora.com/notas/571537-Biblia-en-guarani-es-incluida-oficialmente-en-el-Vaticano |title=Biblia en guaraní es incluida oficialmente en el Vaticano |trans-title=Guarani Bible officially included in the Vatican |date=23 October 2012 |website=Última Hora |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027025938/http://www.ultimahora.com/notas/571537-Biblia-en-guarani-es-incluida-oficialmente-en-el-Vaticano |archive-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> | ||
In 2019, Jehovah's Witnesses released the [[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]] in Guarani,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.jw.org/en/news/jw/region/paraguay/Jehovahs-Witnesses-Release-New-World-Translation-in-Guarani/ |title=Jehovah's Witnesses Release New World Translation in Guarani |date=20 August 2019 |website=jw.org |publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.jw.org/gug/testigos-de-jehov%C3%A1/o%C3%B1eporandu-mem%C3%A9va/jw-biblia-tnm/ |title=¿Orekópa umi testígo de Jehová ibíblia tee? |trans-title=Do Jehovah's Witnesses have their own Bible? |lang=gn |website=jw.org |publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania}}</ref> both in print and online.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.jw.org/gug/Vivliot%C3%A9ka/biblia/nwt/livroku%C3%A9ra/ |title=Ñandejára Ñeʼẽ La Biblia |website=jw.org |publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania}}</ref> | In 2019, Jehovah's Witnesses released the [[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]] in Guarani,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.jw.org/en/news/jw/region/paraguay/Jehovahs-Witnesses-Release-New-World-Translation-in-Guarani/ |title=Jehovah's Witnesses Release New World Translation in Guarani |date=20 August 2019 |website=jw.org |publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.jw.org/gug/testigos-de-jehov%C3%A1/o%C3%B1eporandu-mem%C3%A9va/jw-biblia-tnm/ |title=¿Orekópa umi testígo de Jehová ibíblia tee? |trans-title=Do Jehovah's Witnesses have their own Bible? |lang=gn |website=jw.org |publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania}}</ref> both in print and online.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.jw.org/gug/Vivliot%C3%A9ka/biblia/nwt/livroku%C3%A9ra/ |title=Ñandejára Ñeʼẽ La Biblia |website=jw.org |publisher=Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania}}</ref> | ||
Recently a series of novels in Guarani have been published: | Recently a series of novels in Guarani have been published: | ||
* {{lang| | * {{lang|gug|[[Kalaito Pombero]]}} (Tadeo Zarratea, 1981) | ||
* {{Lang| | * {{Lang|gug|[[Poreʼỹ rape]]}} (Hugo Centurión, 2016) | ||
* {{lang| | * {{lang|gug|[[Tatukua]]}} (Arnaldo Casco Villalba, 2017) | ||
== Institutions == | == Institutions == | ||
* [[ | * [[Guarani Language and Culture Athenaeum]] | ||
* [[Yvy Marãeʼỹ Foundation]] | * [[Yvy Marãeʼỹ Foundation]] | ||
| Line 461: | Line 472: | ||
== Bibliography == | == Bibliography == | ||
* {{cite thesis |last=Barrera |first=Meritxell Fernández |title=Paraguayan Guarani: Some considerations about language mixing and an acoustic study of urban and rural vowels |year=2015 |publisher=[[Leiden University]] |url=https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2605794/view}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Verón |first1=Miguel Ángel |date=2020 |title=La lengua guaraní en la era digital: perspectivas y desafíos |trans-title=The Guaraní language in the Digital Era: Perspectives and Challenges |url=https://www.uticvirtual.edu.py/revista.ojs/index.php/revistas/article/view/98 |journal=Arandu UTIC |volume=VII |issue=1 |pages= |issn=2311-7559 |access-date=25 May 2025 |language=es}} | * {{cite journal |last1=Verón |first1=Miguel Ángel |date=2020 |title=La lengua guaraní en la era digital: perspectivas y desafíos |trans-title=The Guaraní language in the Digital Era: Perspectives and Challenges |url=https://www.uticvirtual.edu.py/revista.ojs/index.php/revistas/article/view/98 |journal=Arandu UTIC |volume=VII |issue=1 |pages= |issn=2311-7559 |access-date=25 May 2025 |language=es}} | ||
| Line 468: | Line 480: | ||
== Further reading == | == Further reading == | ||
* {{cite journal |last=de Carvalho |first=Fernando O. |title=A new sound change for Guarani(an): glottal prothesis, internal classification, and the explanation of synchronic irregularities |journal=Folia Linguistica |volume=56 |issue=43–s1 |date=2022 |pages=263–288 |doi=10.1515/flin-2022-2026|s2cid=249549872 }} | * {{cite journal |last=de Carvalho |first=Fernando O. |title=A new sound change for Guarani(an): glottal prothesis, internal classification, and the explanation of synchronic irregularities |journal=Folia Linguistica |volume=56 |issue=43–s1 |date=2022 |pages=263–288 |doi=10.1515/flin-2022-2026|s2cid=249549872 }} | ||
* {{cite web |url=https://algr.createuky.net/directores/ |title=Project directors |website=Guarani-Romanic Linguistic Atlas |year=2009 |access-date=30 August 2025 |last=Thun |first=Harald |last2=Symeonidis |first2= Haralambos |authorlink2=Haralambos Symeonidis |last3=Dietrich |first3=Wolf }} | |||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
| Line 473: | Line 486: | ||
{{Commons category}} | {{Commons category}} | ||
* [http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD Guarani] at [[Wikibooks]] {{in lang|es}} | * [http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD Guarani] at [[Wikibooks]] {{in lang|es}} | ||
* [ | * [https://www.staff.uni-mainz.de/lustig/guarani/ Guarani Portal from the University of Mainz]: | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111018082243/http://www.guaranirenda.com/ www.guaranirenda.com] – Website about the Guarani language | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111018082243/http://www.guaranirenda.com/ www.guaranirenda.com] – Website about the Guarani language | ||
* [http://www.soundsandcolours.com/articles/paraguay/guarani-and-the-importance-of-maintaining-indigenous-language/ Guarani and the Importance of Maintaining Indigenous Culture Through Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429003614/http://www.soundsandcolours.com/articles/paraguay/guarani-and-the-importance-of-maintaining-indigenous-language/ |date=29 April 2015 }} | * [http://www.soundsandcolours.com/articles/paraguay/guarani-and-the-importance-of-maintaining-indigenous-language/ Guarani and the Importance of Maintaining Indigenous Culture Through Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429003614/http://www.soundsandcolours.com/articles/paraguay/guarani-and-the-importance-of-maintaining-indigenous-language/ |date=29 April 2015 }} | ||
| Line 483: | Line 496: | ||
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Tupi–Guarani_languages Guarani Swadesh vocabulary list] (from Wiktionary) | * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Tupi–Guarani_languages Guarani Swadesh vocabulary list] (from Wiktionary) | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040410201836/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Guarani-english/ Guarani–English Dictionary]: from *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120223164907/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ Webster's Online Dictionary] – [[The Rosetta Edition]] | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040410201836/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Guarani-english/ Guarani–English Dictionary]: from *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120223164907/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ Webster's Online Dictionary] – [[The Rosetta Edition]] | ||
* [ | * [https://www.guarani.de/ www.guarani.de] – Online dictionary in Spanish, German and Guarani | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060102212448/http://crl.ucsd.edu/newsletter/3-6/Article1.html Guarani Possessive Constructions] | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060102212448/http://crl.ucsd.edu/newsletter/3-6/Article1.html Guarani Possessive Constructions] – by Maura Velázquez | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061206/http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~cschmidt/SWL1/handouts/Nordhoff.pdf Stative Verbs and Possession in Guarani]: – [[University of Cologne]] – by Sebastian Nordhoff | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061206/http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~cschmidt/SWL1/handouts/Nordhoff.pdf Stative Verbs and Possession in Guarani]: – [[University of Cologne]] – by Sebastian Nordhoff | ||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132856/http://www.datamex.com.py/guarani/neenga/neejoapy_latineeme.html Frases celebres del Latin traducidas al guarani] {{in lang|es}} | * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132856/http://www.datamex.com.py/guarani/neenga/neejoapy_latineeme.html Frases celebres del Latin traducidas al guarani] {{in lang|es}} | ||
* [ | * [https://albino-guaranikupyty.blogspot.com/ Spanish – Estructura Basica del Guarani and others] | ||
* [http://www.illa-a.org/wp/diccionarios/guarani-elio-ortiz-y-elias-caurey/ Etymological and Ethnographic Dictionary for Bolivian Guarani] | * [http://www.illa-a.org/wp/diccionarios/guarani-elio-ortiz-y-elias-caurey/ Etymological and Ethnographic Dictionary for Bolivian Guarani] | ||
* [https://ids.clld.org/contributions/290 Guaraní] ([[Intercontinental Dictionary Series]]) | * [https://ids.clld.org/contributions/290 Guaraní] ([[Intercontinental Dictionary Series]]) | ||
*1983: [[Natalia Krivoshein de Canese]], ''Gramática de la lengua guaraní'' | |||
*1990: Natalia Krivoshein de Canese, Feliciano Acosta Alcatraz, ''Ñe'ẽryru. diccionario guaraní-español'' ({{langx|gug|Ñe'eryru: avañe'e-karaiñe'e, karaiñe'e-avañe'e}}) | |||
{{Languages of Argentina}} | {{Languages of Argentina}} | ||
| Line 496: | Line 511: | ||
{{Languages of Paraguay}} | {{Languages of Paraguay}} | ||
{{Tupian languages}} | {{Tupian languages}} | ||
{{American Indigenous languages with wikipedia}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:Guarani language| ]] | [[Category:Guarani language| ]] | ||
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]] | [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] | ||
[[Category:Polysynthetic languages]] | |||
[[Category:Languages of Argentina]] | [[Category:Languages of Argentina]] | ||
[[Category:Languages of Bolivia]] | [[Category:Languages of Bolivia]] | ||
Latest revision as of 05:20, 20 November 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Template:Use dmy dates Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other
Paraguayan Guarani, or simply Guarani (Script error: No such module "Lang".),Template:Efn is a language of South America that belongs to the Tupi–Guarani branch[1] of the Tupian language family. It is one of the two official languages of Paraguay (along with Spanish), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population are monolingual speakers of the language.[2][3]
Variants of the language are spoken by communities in neighboring countries including parts of northeastern Argentina, southeastern Bolivia and southwestern Brazil. It is a second official language of the Argentine province of Corrientes since 2004[4] and the Brazilian city of Tacuru since 2010.[5] Guarani is also one of the three official languages of Mercosur, alongside Spanish and Portuguese.[6]
Guarani is one of the most widely spoken Native American languages and remains commonly used among the Paraguayan people and neighboring communities. This is unique among American languages; language shift towards European colonial languages (in this case, the other official language of Spanish) has otherwise been a nearly universal phenomenon in the Western Hemisphere, but Paraguayans have maintained their traditional language while also adopting Spanish.
The name "Guarani" is generally used for the official language of Paraguay. However, this is part of a dialect chain, most of whose components are also often called Guarani.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
History
While Guarani, in its Classical form, was the only language spoken in the expansive missionary territories, Paraguayan Guarani has its roots outside of the Jesuit Reductions.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Modern scholarship has shown that Guarani was always the primary language of colonial Paraguay, both inside and outside the reductions. Following the expulsion of the Jesuits in the 18th century, the residents of the reductions gradually migrated north and west towards Asunción, a demographic shift that brought about a decidedly one-sided shift away from the Jesuit dialect that the missionaries had curated in the southern and eastern territories of the colony.[7][8]
By and large, the Guarani of the Jesuits shied away from direct phonological loans from Spanish. Instead, the missionaries relied on the agglutinative nature of the language to formulate new precise translations or calque terms from Guarani morphemes. This process often led the Jesuits to employ complicated, highly synthetic terms to convey European concepts.[9] By contrast, the Guarani spoken outside of the missions was characterized by a free, unregulated flow of Hispanicisms; frequently, Spanish words and phrases were simply incorporated into Guarani with minimal phonological adaptation.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
A good example of that phenomenon is found in the word "communion". The Jesuits, using their agglutinative strategy, rendered this word "Script error: No such module "Lang".", a calque based on the word "Script error: No such module "Lang".", meaning God.[10] In modern Paraguayan Guarani, the same word is rendered "Script error: No such module "Lang".".[11]
Following the out-migration from the reductions, these two distinct dialects of Guarani came into extensive contact for the first time. The vast majority of speakers abandoned the less colloquial, highly regulated Jesuit variant in favor of the variety that evolved from actual use by speakers in Paraguay.[12] This contemporary form of spoken Guarani is known as Jopará, meaning "mixture" in Guarani.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Political status
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Widely spoken, Paraguayan Guarani has nevertheless been repressed by Paraguayan governments throughout most of its history since independence. It was prohibited in state schools for over 100 years. However, populists often used pride in the language to excite nationalistic fervor and promote a narrative of social unity.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
During the autocratic regime of Alfredo Stroessner, his Colorado Party used the language to appeal to common Paraguayans although Stroessner himself never gave an address in Guarani.[13] Upon the advent of Paraguayan democracy in 1992, Guarani was established in the new constitution as a language equal to Spanish.[3]
Jopará, the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. Code-switching between the two languages takes place on a spectrum in which more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, and more Guarani is used in art and in everyday life.[14]
Guarani is also an official language of Bolivia and of Corrientes Province in Argentina.[4]
Phonology
Guarani syllables consist of a consonant plus a vowel or a vowel alone; syllables ending in a consonant or containing two or more consonants together do not occur. This is represented as (C)V.
In the below table, the IPA value is shown. The orthography is shown in angle brackets below, if different.
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Alveo- palatal |
Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plainScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | lab.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | ||||||
| Nasal | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | ||
| Stop | voicedScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | ||||||
| voicelessScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Fricative | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | ||||
| Approximant | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | |||
| Flap | Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link | ||||||
The voiced consonants have oral allophones (left) before oral vowels, and nasal allophones (right) before nasal vowels. The oral allophones of the voiced stops are prenasalized.
Some linguists additionally include the phoneme Script error: No such module "IPA". (written Template:Angbr), though it is considered controversial as it appears exclusively in the suffix -nte.Template:Sfnp Nonetheless, it is typically included in the Guarani alphabet.
Oral Template:IPAslink may be realized as Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, depending on the dialect, but the nasal allophone is always Template:IPAblink.
The palato-alveolar sibilant Template:IPAslink is often articulated closer to alveolo-palatal Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfnp
The dorsal fricative is in free variation between Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink.
The approximant Template:IPAslink may be nasalized Script error: No such module "IPA". and partially labialized Script error: No such module "IPA"., and may also be realized as a fricative Template:IPAblink or a fully labialized approximant Template:IPAblink.Template:Efn
From Spanish loanwords, what had originally been a typical alveolar trill Template:IPAslink (written Template:Angbr) became a retroflex sibilant Template:IPAslink. The alveolar lateral Template:IPAslink also entered Guarani phonology through Spanish loanwords, but is now a typical phoneme (unlike Script error: No such module "IPA"., which is considered marginal).Template:Sfnp The consonants Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, and Template:IPAslink may also appear in loanwords.Template:Sfnp
All syllables are open, viz. CV or V, ending in a vowel.
Glottal stop
The glottal stop, called Script error: No such module "Lang". in Guarani, is only written between vowels, but occurs phonetically before vowel-initial words. Because of this, some words have several glottal stops near each other that consequently undergo a number of different dissimilation techniques. For example, "I drink water" Script error: No such module "Lang". is pronounced Script error: No such module "Lang".. This suggests that irregularity in verb forms derives from regular sound change processes in the history of Guarani. There also seems to be some degree of variation between how much the glottal stop is dropped (for example Script error: No such module "Lang". for "I bring"). It is possible that word-internal glottal stops may have been retained from fossilized compounds where the second component was a vowel-initial (and therefore glottal stop–initial) root.[17]
Vowels
Script error: No such module "IPA". correspond more or less to the Spanish and IPA equivalents, although sometimes the open-mid allophones Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink are used more frequently. The grapheme Template:Angbr represents the vowel Template:IPAslink.Template:Efn Considering nasality, the vowel system is perfectly symmetrical, each oral vowel having a nasal counterpart (most systems with nasals have fewer nasals than orals).
Nasal harmony
Guarani displays an unusual degree of nasal harmony. A nasal syllable consists of a nasal vowel, and if the consonant is voiced, it takes its nasal allophone. If a stressed syllable is nasal, the nasality spreads in both directions until it bumps up against a stressed syllable that is oral. This includes affixes, postpositions, and compounding. Voiceless consonants do not have nasal allophones, but they do not interrupt the spread of nasality.
For example,
- Script error: No such module "IPA". → Script error: No such module "IPA".
- Script error: No such module "IPA". → Script error: No such module "IPA".
However, a second stressed syllable, with an oral vowel, will not become nasalized:
- Script error: No such module "IPA". → Script error: No such module "IPA".
- Script error: No such module "IPA". → Script error: No such module "IPA".[18]
That is, for a word with a single stressed vowel, all voiced segments will be either oral or nasal, while voiceless consonants are unaffected, as in oral Script error: No such module "IPA". vs nasal Script error: No such module "IPA"..
Orthography
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
| Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A | Ã | Ch | E | Ẽ | G | G̃ | H | I | Ĩ | J | K | L | M | Mb | N | Nd | Ng | Nt | Ñ | O | Õ | P | R | Rr | S | T | U | Ũ | V | Y | Ỹ | [[Modifier letter apostrophe|Template:`]] |
| Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| a | ã | ch | e | ẽ | g | g̃ | h | i | ĩ | j | k | l | m | mb | n | nd | ng | nt | ñ | o | õ | p | r | rr | s | t | u | ũ | v | y | ỹ | Template:` |
| IPA values | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| a | ã | ʃ~ɕ | e | ẽ | ɰ~ɣ | ŋ | h | i | ĩ | ʝ~dʒ | k | l | m | ᵐb | n | ⁿd | ᵑɡ | ⁿt | ɲ | o | õ | p | ɾ | ʐ | s | t | u | ũ | ʋ | ɨ | ɨ̃ | ʔ |
Grammar
Guarani is a highly agglutinative language, often classified as polysynthetic. It is a fluid-S type active language, and it has been classified as a 6th class language in Milewski's typology. It uses subject–verb–object (SVO) word order usually, but object–verb when the subject is not specified.[19]
Nouns
Guarani exhibits nominal tense: past, expressed with Script error: No such module "Lang"., and future, expressed with Script error: No such module "Lang".. For example, Script error: No such module "Lang". translates to "ex-president" while Script error: No such module "Lang". translates to "president-elect." The past morpheme Script error: No such module "Lang". is often translated as "ex-", "former", "abandoned", "what was once", or "one-time". These morphemes can even be combined to express the idea of something that was going to be but did not end up happening. So for example, Script error: No such module "Lang". is "a person who studied to be a priest but didn't actually finish", or rather, "the ex-future priest". Some nouns use Script error: No such module "Lang". instead of Script error: No such module "Lang". and others use Script error: No such module "Lang". instead of Script error: No such module "Lang"..[20]
Pronouns
Guarani distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive pronouns of the first person plural.
| singular | plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | inclusive | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| exclusive | Script error: No such module "Lang". | ||
| 2nd person | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | |
| 3rd person | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Template:ItcoTemplate:Efn-lr | |
Reflexive pronoun: Script error: No such module "Lang".: Script error: No such module "Lang". ("I look"), Script error: No such module "Lang". ("I look at myself")
Conjugation
Guarani stems can be divided into a number of conjugation classes, which are called Script error: No such module "Lang". (with the subclass Script error: No such module "Lang".) and Script error: No such module "Lang".. The names for these classes stem from the names of the prefixes for 1st and 2nd person singular.
The Script error: No such module "Lang". conjugation is used to convey that the participant is actively involved, whereas the Script error: No such module "Lang". conjugation is used to convey that the participant is the undergoer. However, the Script error: No such module "Lang". conjugation is also used if an intransitive verb expresses an event as opposed to a state, for example Script error: No such module "Lang". 'die', and even with a verb such as Script error: No such module "Lang". 'sleep'. In addition, all borrowed Spanish verbs are adopted as Script error: No such module "Lang". as opposed to borrowed adjectives, which take Script error: No such module "Lang"..[21] Intransitive verbs can take either conjugation, transitive verbs normally take Script error: No such module "Lang"., but can take Script error: No such module "Lang". for habitual readings. Nouns can also be conjugated, but only as Script error: No such module "Lang".. This conveys a predicative possessive reading.[22]
Furthermore, the conjugations vary slightly according to the stem being oral or nasal.
| pronoun | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral | nasal | |||
| Template:Nobold | Template:Nobold | Template:Nobold | Template:Nobold | |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
Negation
Negation is indicated by a circumfix Script error: No such module "Lang". in Guarani. The preverbal portion of the circumfix is Script error: No such module "Lang". for oral bases and Script error: No such module "Lang". for nasal bases. For 2nd person singular, an epenthetic Script error: No such module "Lang". is inserted before the base, for 1st person plural inclusive, an epenthetic Script error: No such module "Lang". is inserted.
The postverbal portion is Script error: No such module "Lang". for bases ending in Script error: No such module "Lang"., and Script error: No such module "Lang". for all others. However, in spoken Guarani, the Script error: No such module "Lang". portion of the circumfix is frequently omitted for bases ending in Script error: No such module "Lang"..
| Oral verb | Nasal verb | With ending in "i" |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Nobold | Template:Nobold | Template:Nobold |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
The negation can be used in all tenses, but for future or irrealis reference, the normal tense marking is replaced by Script error: No such module "Lang"., resulting in Script error: No such module "Lang".-base-Script error: No such module "Lang". as in Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I won't do it".
There are also other negatives, such as: Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang"..
Tense and aspect morphemes
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: marks extreme proximity of the action, often translating to "just barely": Script error: No such module "Lang"., "He just barely arrived".[23]Template:Rp
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: marks proximity of the action. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I just ate" (Script error: No such module "Lang". irregular first person singular form of Script error: No such module "Lang"., "to eat"). It can also be used after a pronoun, as in Script error: No such module "Lang"., "and about what happened to me, I was lucky".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: indicates a fact that occurred long ago and asserts that it's really truth. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "he/she went missing a long time ago".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: tells that the speaker was doubtful before but he's sure at the moment he speaks. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "so then you bought a new television after all".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: expresses the uncertainty of a perfect-aspect fact. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I think you lived in Asunción for a while". Nevertheless, nowadays this morpheme has lost some of its meaning, having a correspondence with Script error: No such module "Lang". and Script error: No such module "Lang"..
The verb form without suffixes at all is a present somewhat aorist: Script error: No such module "Lang"., "that day you got out and you went far".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: is a future of immediate happening, it's also used as authoritarian imperative. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "he/she'll come back soon".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: has the meaning of "already". Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I already did it".
These two suffixes can be added together: Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I'm already going".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: indicates something not imminent or something that must be done for social or moral reasons, in this case corresponding to the German modal verb Script error: No such module "Lang".. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "that must be done".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: indicates something that probably will happen or something the speaker imagines that is happening. It correlates in a certain way with the subjunctive of Spanish. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "the children are probably coming home now".
- Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "Lang". after nasal words: continual action at the moment of speaking, present and pluperfect continuous or emphatic. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "we're making fire"; Script error: No such module "Lang"., "it's ME!".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: it has a subtle difference with Script error: No such module "Lang". in which Script error: No such module "Lang". indicates not necessarily what's being done at the moment of speaking. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I'm working (not necessarily now)".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: indicates proximity immediately before the start of the process. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I'm near the point at which I will start to kill" or "I'm just about to kill". (A particular sandhi rule is applied here: if the verbs ends in Script error: No such module "Lang"., the suffix changes to Script error: No such module "Lang".; Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I'll do it right now").
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: indicates emphatically that a process has all finished. Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I painted the wall completely".
This suffix can be joined with Script error: No such module "Lang"., making up Script error: No such module "Lang".: Script error: No such module "Lang"., "now we came to know all your thought".
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: customary action in the past: Script error: No such module "Lang"., "He used to come a lot".
These are unstressed suffixes: Script error: No such module "Lang".; so the stress goes upon the last syllable of the verb or the last stressed syllable.
Other verbal morphemes
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: desiderative suffix: Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I want to study".[24]
- Script error: No such module "Lang".: desiderative prefix: Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I pass", Script error: No such module "Lang"., "I would like to pass." Script error: No such module "Lang". is the underlying form. It is similar to the negative in that it has the same vowel alternations and deletions, depending on the person marker on the verb.[23]Template:Rp
Spanish loans in Guarani
The close and prolonged contact Spanish and Guarani have experienced has resulted in many Guarani words of Spanish origin. Many of these loans were for things or concepts unknown to the New World prior to Spanish colonization. Examples are seen below:[25]
| Semantic category | Spanish | Guarani | English | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA | ||
| animals | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | cow |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | horse | |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | goat | |
| religion | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | cross |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Jesus Christ | |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Paul (saint) | |
| place names | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Australia |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Iceland | |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Portugal | |
| foods | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | cheese |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | sugar | |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | blood sausage | |
| herbs/spices | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | cinnamon |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | cilantro (US), coriander (UK) | |
| Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "IPA". | anise | |
Guarani loans in English
English has adopted a small number of words from Guarani (or perhaps the related Tupi) via Portuguese, mostly the names of animals or plants. "Jaguar" comes from Script error: No such module "Lang". and "piraña" comes from Script error: No such module "Lang". ("tooth fish" Tupi: Script error: No such module "Lang". 'fish', Script error: No such module "Lang". 'tooth'). Other words are: "agouti" from Script error: No such module "Lang". (which means "individual that eats standing up"),[26][27] "tapir" from Script error: No such module "Lang"., "coati" from kuatĩ (which means "what is scratched, or gashed; what has stripes across the body"),[28] "açaí" from Script error: No such module "Lang". ("[fruit that] cries or expels water"), "warrah" from Script error: No such module "Lang". meaning "fox", and "margay" from Script error: No such module "Lang". meaning "small cat". Jacaranda (y-acã-ratã, "that which has a firm core or heartwood"[29] or "hard-headed"),[30] guarana and manioc are words of Guarani or Tupi–Guarani origin.[31] Ipecacuanha (the name of a medicinal drug) comes from a homonymous Tupi–Guarani name that can be rendered as Script error: No such module "Lang"., meaning a creeping plant that makes one vomit.[32] "Cougar" is borrowed from Guarani guazu ara.[33]
The name of Paraguay is itself a Guarani word, as is the name of Uruguay.[34] However, the exact meaning of either placename is subject to varied interpretations.[35][36] (See: List of country-name etymologies.)
Example text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Guarani:
- Script error: No such module "Lang".[37]
- Script error: No such module "IPA".
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[38]
Literature
A more modern translation of the whole Bible into Guarani is known as Script error: No such module "Lang"..[39]
In 2019, Jehovah's Witnesses released the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in Guarani,[40][41] both in print and online.[42]
Recently a series of novels in Guarani have been published:
- Script error: No such module "Lang". (Tadeo Zarratea, 1981)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". (Hugo Centurión, 2016)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". (Arnaldo Casco Villalba, 2017)
Institutions
See also
Script error: No such module "Portal".
- Guarani languages
- Nheengatu language
- Jopará
- Jesuit Reductions
- Mbyá Guaraní language
- Old Tupi
- Guarani Wikipedia
- WikiProject Guaraní Template:In lang
Notes
Bibliography
- Template:Cite thesis
- Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
Sources
Further reading
- Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
External links
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project
- Guarani at Wikibooks Template:In lang
- Guarani Portal from the University of Mainz:
- www.guaranirenda.com – Website about the Guarani language
- Guarani and the Importance of Maintaining Indigenous Culture Through Language Template:Webarchive
- Lenguas de Bolivia Template:Webarchive (online edition)
- Duolingo course in Guarani
Resources
- A Grammar of Paraguayan Guarani – by Bruno Estigarribia, UCL Press (open access, Creative Commons license)
- Guarani Swadesh vocabulary list (from Wiktionary)
- Guarani–English Dictionary: from *Webster's Online Dictionary – The Rosetta Edition
- www.guarani.de – Online dictionary in Spanish, German and Guarani
- Guarani Possessive Constructions – by Maura Velázquez
- Stative Verbs and Possession in Guarani: – University of Cologne – by Sebastian Nordhoff
- Frases celebres del Latin traducidas al guarani Template:In lang
- Spanish – Estructura Basica del Guarani and others
- Etymological and Ethnographic Dictionary for Bolivian Guarani
- Guaraní (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)
- 1983: Natalia Krivoshein de Canese, Gramática de la lengua guaraní
- 1990: Natalia Krivoshein de Canese, Feliciano Acosta Alcatraz, Ñe'ẽryru. diccionario guaraní-español (Template:Langx)
Template:Languages of Argentina Template:Languages of Bolivia Template:Languages of Brazil Template:Languages of Paraguay Template:Tupian languages Template:American Indigenous languages with wikipedia Template:Authority control
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Template:Cite thesis
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Pinta, J. (2013). "Lexical strata in loanword phonology: Spanish loans in Guarani". Master's thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (See also Lexical stratum.)
- ↑ Teodoro Sampaio, O tupi na geografia nacional, p. 228
- ↑ Infopédia
- ↑ Teodoro Sampaio, O tupi na geografia nacional, p. 308
- ↑ Teodoro Sampaio, O tupi na geografia nacional, p. 263
- ↑ Infopédia
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "template wrapper". Template:OEDsub
- ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, Cougar.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1"., p.2.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".. pp=2-3.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1"., p.147.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".