Mutual intelligibility: Difference between revisions

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Intelligibility between varieties can be asymmetric; that is, speakers of one variety may be able to better understand another than vice versa. An example of this is the case between [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. It is generally easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch. (See {{section link|Afrikaans#Mutual intelligibility with Dutch}}.)
Intelligibility between varieties can be asymmetric; that is, speakers of one variety may be able to better understand another than vice versa. An example of this is [[Afrikaans#Mutual intelligibility with Dutch|the case between Afrikaans and Dutch]]. It is generally easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.


In a [[dialect continuum]], neighbouring varieties are mutually intelligible, but differences mount with distance, so that more widely separated varieties may not be mutually intelligible. Intelligibility can be partial, as is the case with [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], or significant, as is the case with [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].  
In a [[dialect continuum]], neighbouring varieties are mutually intelligible, but differences mount with distance, so that more widely separated varieties may not be mutually intelligible. Intelligibility can be partial, as is the case with [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], or significant, as is the case with [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].  
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==Types==
==Types==
===Asymmetric intelligibility===
===Asymmetric intelligibility===
Asymmetric intelligibility refers to two languages that are considered partially mutually intelligible, but for various reasons, one group of speakers has more difficulty understanding the other language than the other way around. For example, if one language is related to another but has simplified its [[grammar]], the speakers of the original language may understand the simplified language, but not vice versa. To illustrate, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] speakers tend to find it easier to understand [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] as a result of Afrikaans's simplified grammar.<ref name="gooskens"/>
Asymmetric intelligibility is the relationship between two languages that are partially mutually intelligible but for which, for various reasons, one group of speakers has more difficulty understanding the other language than the other way around. For example, if one language is related to another but has simplified its [[grammar]], the speakers of the original language may understand the simplified language, but not vice versa. To illustrate, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] speakers tend to find it easier to understand [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] as a result of Afrikaans's simplified grammar.<ref name="gooskens"/>


===Among sign languages===
===Among sign languages===
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===Austronesian===
===Austronesian===
{{Main|Austronesian languages}}
{{Main|Austronesian languages}}
* [[Banjarese language|Banjarese]], [[Berau Malay]], and [[Brunei Malay]]<ref>{{cite book|first=James T.|last=Collins|year=2006|chapter=The Malayic variants of eastern Borneo|editor-first1=Fritz|editor-last1=Schulze|editor-first2=Holger|editor-last2=Warnk|title=Insular Southeast Asia: Linguistic and cultural studies in Honour of Bernd Nothofer|p=37–51|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Harrassowitz}}</ref>
* [[Iban language|Iban]] and [[Malay language|Malay]], especially with [[Sarawakian Malay]] (partially)<ref name="ANU Press">{{Cite book |title=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives |date=2006 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1-920942-85-4 |editor-last=Bellwood |editor-first=Peter |location=Canberra |language=en |doi=10.22459/a.09.2006 |editor-last2=Fox |editor-first2=James J. |editor-last3=Tryon |editor-first3=Darrell |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Iban language|Iban]] and [[Malay language|Malay]], especially with [[Sarawakian Malay]] (partially)<ref name="ANU Press">{{Cite book |title=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives |date=2006 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1-920942-85-4 |editor-last=Bellwood |editor-first=Peter |location=Canberra |language=en |doi=10.22459/a.09.2006 |editor-last2=Fox |editor-first2=James J. |editor-last3=Tryon |editor-first3=Darrell |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]] and [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]<ref>{{Ethnologue22|tkl|Tokelauan}}</ref><ref>{{Ethnologue22|tvl|Tuvaluan}}</ref>
* [[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]] and [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]<ref>{{Ethnologue22|tkl|Tokelauan}}</ref><ref>{{Ethnologue22|tvl|Tuvaluan}}</ref>
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====Romance====
====Romance====
{{Main|Romance languages}}
{{Main|Romance languages}}
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Galician language|Galician]] (significantly)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beswick |first=Jaine |year=2005 |title=Linguistic homogeneity in Galician and Portuguese borderland communities| journal=Estudios de Sociolingüística |volume=6 |issue=1| pages=39–64}}</ref>
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Galician language|Galician]] (very significantly)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beswick |first=Jaine |year=2005 |title=Linguistic homogeneity in Galician and Portuguese borderland communities| journal=Estudios de Sociolingüística |volume=6 |issue=1| pages=39–64}}</ref>
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], [[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]] and [[Istro-Romanian language|Istro-Romanian]] (significantly)<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083828/Romanian-language Romanian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref>
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], [[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]] and [[Istro-Romanian language|Istro-Romanian]] (significantly)<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9083828/Romanian-language Romanian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref>
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] (partially) <ref name=Voigt2014>{{cite news |title=Mutual Intelligibility of Closely Related Languages within the Romance language family| page=113 | last=Voigt | first=Stefanie | year=2014 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330032214/https://www.linguistics.fi/contact/Book_of_abstracts_10.7.2014.pdf#page=114}}</ref>
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] (partially) <ref name=Voigt2014>{{cite news |title=Mutual Intelligibility of Closely Related Languages within the Romance language family| page=113 | last=Voigt | first=Stefanie | year=2014 |url=https://www.linguistics.fi/contact/Book_of_abstracts_10.7.2014.pdf#page=114| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330032214/https://www.linguistics.fi/contact/Book_of_abstracts_10.7.2014.pdf#page=114 | archive-date=30 March 2024 }}</ref>
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Judaeo-Spanish]] (spoken or written in the Latin alphabet; Judaeo-Spanish may also be written in the Hebrew alphabet). Depending on dialect and the number of non-Spanish loanwords used.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tomić |first1=Olga Mišeska |title=Balkan Syntax and Semantics |date=2004 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2790-4 |page=461 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYoWE_tNKNQC&q=Judeo-Spanish+intelligibility&pg=PA461 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Faingold |first1=Eduardo D. |title=Child Language, Creolization, and Historical Change: Spanish in Contact with Portuguese |date=1996 |publisher=Gunter Narr Verlag |isbn=978-3-8233-4715-6 |page=110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AHN1EMi1UqEC&q=Judeo-Spanish+intelligibility&pg=PA110 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria: WPLC. |date=1997 |publisher=WPLC, Department of Linguistics, University of Victoria |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=heobAQAAIAAJ&q=Ladino+Spanish+intelligibility |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Ur |first1=Aviva |last2=Levy |first2=Louis Nissim |title=A Ladino Legacy: The Judeo-Spanish Collection of Louis N. Levy |date=2001 |publisher=Alexander Books |isbn=978-1-57090-160-7 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9QWAQAAIAAJ&q=Ladino+Spanish+intelligibility |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Judaeo-Spanish]] (spoken or written in the Latin alphabet; Judaeo-Spanish may also be written in the Hebrew alphabet). Depending on dialect and the number of non-Spanish loanwords used.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tomić |first1=Olga Mišeska |title=Balkan Syntax and Semantics |date=2004 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2790-4 |page=461 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYoWE_tNKNQC&q=Judeo-Spanish+intelligibility&pg=PA461 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Faingold |first1=Eduardo D. |title=Child Language, Creolization, and Historical Change: Spanish in Contact with Portuguese |date=1996 |publisher=Gunter Narr Verlag |isbn=978-3-8233-4715-6 |page=110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AHN1EMi1UqEC&q=Judeo-Spanish+intelligibility&pg=PA110 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria: WPLC. |date=1997 |publisher=WPLC, Department of Linguistics, University of Victoria |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=heobAQAAIAAJ&q=Ladino+Spanish+intelligibility |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Ur |first1=Aviva |last2=Levy |first2=Louis Nissim |title=A Ladino Legacy: The Judeo-Spanish Collection of Louis N. Levy |date=2001 |publisher=Alexander Books |isbn=978-1-57090-160-7 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9QWAQAAIAAJ&q=Ladino+Spanish+intelligibility |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish|Spanish and Portuguese]] (significantly and asymmetrically)<ref name=Voigt2014/>
* [[Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish|Spanish and Portuguese]] (significantly and asymmetrically)<ref name=Voigt2014/>
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{{Main|East Slavic languages}}
{{Main|East Slavic languages}}
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (very significantly)  
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (very significantly)  
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] (partially and asymmetrically)<ref name=BlrRusUkr>{{cite book |first=Alexander M. |last=Schenker  |year=1993  |chapter=Proto-Slavonic |title=The Slavonic Languages |publisher=Routledge  |pp=60–121  |quote-page=60 |quote=[The] distinction between dialect and language being blurred, there can be no unanimity on this issue in all instances...}}<br/>{{cite book |first1=C.F. |last1=Voegelin |first2=F.M. |last2=Voegelin  |year=1977  |title=Classification and Index of the World's Languages |publisher=Elsevier  |quote-page=311 |quote=In terms of immediate mutual intelligibility, the East Slavic zone is a single language.}}<br/>{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Comrie  |year=1981  |title=The Languages of the Soviet Union |publisher=Cambridge  |quote-pages=145–146 |quote=The three East Slavonic languages are very close to one another, with very high rates of mutual intelligibility... The separation of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian as distinct languages is relatively recent... Many Ukrainians in fact speak a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian, finding it difficult to keep the two languages apart...}}</ref>
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] (partially and asymmetrically)<ref name=BlrRusUkr>{{cite book |first=Alexander M. |last=Schenker  |year=1993  |chapter=Proto-Slavonic |title=The Slavonic Languages |publisher=Routledge  |pages=60–121  |quote-page=60 |quote=[The] distinction between dialect and language being blurred, there can be no unanimity on this issue in all instances...}}<br/>{{cite book |first1=C.F. |last1=Voegelin |first2=F.M. |last2=Voegelin  |year=1977  |title=Classification and Index of the World's Languages |publisher=Elsevier  |quote-page=311 |quote=In terms of immediate mutual intelligibility, the East Slavic zone is a single language.}}<br/>{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Comrie  |year=1981  |title=The Languages of the Soviet Union |publisher=Cambridge  |quote-pages=145–146 |quote=The three East Slavonic languages are very close to one another, with very high rates of mutual intelligibility... The separation of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian as distinct languages is relatively recent... Many Ukrainians in fact speak a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian, finding it difficult to keep the two languages apart...}}</ref>


====Southern Slavic====
====Southern Slavic====

Latest revision as of 04:21, 1 July 2025

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In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between different but related language varieties in which speakers of the different varieties can readily understand each other without prior familiarity or special effort. Mutual intelligibility is sometimes used to distinguish languages from dialects, although sociolinguistic factors are often also used.

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Comparing Czech and Slovak languages

Template:Unbulleted list Both Czech and Slovak have a long history of interaction and share vocabulary, grammatical and orthographic features.

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Intelligibility between varieties can be asymmetric; that is, speakers of one variety may be able to better understand another than vice versa. An example of this is the case between Afrikaans and Dutch. It is generally easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.

In a dialect continuum, neighbouring varieties are mutually intelligible, but differences mount with distance, so that more widely separated varieties may not be mutually intelligible. Intelligibility can be partial, as is the case with Azerbaijani and Turkish, or significant, as is the case with Bulgarian and Macedonian.

Types

Asymmetric intelligibility

Asymmetric intelligibility is the relationship between two languages that are partially mutually intelligible but for which, for various reasons, one group of speakers has more difficulty understanding the other language than the other way around. For example, if one language is related to another but has simplified its grammar, the speakers of the original language may understand the simplified language, but not vice versa. To illustrate, Dutch speakers tend to find it easier to understand Afrikaans as a result of Afrikaans's simplified grammar.[1]

Among sign languages

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". Sign languages are not universal and usually not mutually intelligible,[2] although there are also similarities among different sign languages. Sign languages are independent of spoken languages and follow their own linguistic development. For example, British Sign Language and American Sign Language (ASL) are quite different linguistically and mutually unintelligible. The grammar of sign languages does not usually resemble that of the spoken languages used in the same geographical area. To illustrate, in terms of syntax, ASL shares more in common with spoken Japanese than with English.[3]

As a criterion for distinguishing languages

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". Some linguists use mutual intelligibility as the primary linguistic criterion for determining whether two speech varieties represent the same or different languages.[4][5][6]

A primary challenge to this position is that speakers of closely related languages can often communicate with each other effectively if they choose to do so. In the case of transparently cognate languages recognized as distinct such as Spanish and Italian, mutual intelligibility is in principle and in practice not binary (simply yes or no), but occurs in varying degrees, subject to numerous variables specific to individual speakers in the context of the communication.

Classifications may also shift for reasons external to the languages themselves. As an example, in the case of a linear dialect continuum, the central varieties may become extinct, leaving only the varieties at both ends. Consequently, these end varieties may be reclassified as two languages, even though no significant linguistic change has occurred within the two extremes during the extinction of the central varieties.

Furthermore, political and social conventions often override considerations of mutual intelligibility. For example, the varieties of Chinese are often considered a single language, even though there is usually no mutual intelligibility between geographically separated varieties. This is similarly the case among the varieties of Arabic, which also share a single prestige variety in Modern Standard Arabic. In contrast, there is often significant intelligibility between different North Germanic languages. However, because there are various standard forms of the North Germanic languages, they are classified as separate languages.[7]

It is often claimed by linguists that mutual intelligibility is completely gradualTemplate:Clarification needed and thus not very useful as a criterion for demarcating boundaries between languages (unless they are separated by a clear language border), but a 2021 study[8] provides evidence against this view.

Within dialect continua

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North Germanic

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Northern Germanic languages spoken in Scandinavia form a dialect continuum where the two furthermost dialects have almost no mutual intelligibility. As such, spoken Danish and Swedish normally have low mutual intelligibility,[1] but Swedes in the Öresund region (including Malmö and Helsingborg), across the strait from the Danish capital Copenhagen, understand Danish somewhat better, largely due to the proximity of the region to Danish-speaking areas. While Norway was under Danish rule, the Bokmål written standard of Norwegian developed from Dano-Norwegian, a koiné language that evolved among the urban elite in Norwegian cities during the later years of the union. Additionally, Norwegian assimilated a considerable amount of Danish vocabulary as well as traditional Danish expressions.[1] As a consequence, spoken mutual intelligibility is not reciprocal.[1]

Romance

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Because of the difficulty of imposing boundaries on a continuum, various counts of the Romance languages are given. For example, in The Linguasphere register of the world's languages and speech communities, David Dalby lists 23 languages based on mutual intelligibility:[9]

South Slavic

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The non-standard vernacular dialects of Serbo-Croatian (Kajkavian, Chakavian and Torlakian) diverge more significantly from all four normative varieties of Serbo-Croatian. Their mutual intelligibility varies greatly between the dialects themselves, with the standard Shtokavian dialect, and with other languages. For example, Torlakian, which is considered a subdialect of Serbian Old Shtokavian, has significant mutual intelligibility with Macedonian and Bulgarian.[10]

List of mutually intelligible languages

Afroasiatic

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Atlantic–Congo

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Austronesian

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Indo-European

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Germanic

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Romance

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Eastern Slavic

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Southern Slavic

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West Slavic

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Other subdivisions

Kra-Dai

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Sino-Tibetan

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Turkic

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Uralic

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Tungusic

List of dialects or varieties sometimes considered separate languages

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See also

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References

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Further reading

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External links

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Nakamura, Karen. (1995). "About American Sign Language." Deaf Resource Library, Yale University. [1]
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ See e.g. P.H. Matthews, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, OUP 2007, p. 103.; W. Abraham (ed.), Terminologie zur neueren Linguistik, Tübingen 1974, p. 411; T. Lewandowski, Linguistisches Wörterbuch, Heidelberg/Wiesbaden (5th ed.) 1990, pp. 994–995; L. Campbell, Historical linguistics. An introduction, Edinburgh 1998, p. 165; G. Mounin, Schlüssel zur Linguistik, Hamburg, 1978, p. 55; U. Ammon, "Language – Variety/Standard Variety – Dialect", U. Ammon et al (ed.), Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik. An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society / Ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft, Berlin/New York 1987, p. 324; D. Crystal, A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, Oxford (4th ed) 1997, 2003, p. 286.
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ David Dalby, 1999/2000, The Linguasphere register of the world's languages and speech communities. Observatoire Linguistique, Linguasphere Press. Volume 2, p. 390-410 (zone 51). Oxford.[2] Template:Webarchive
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Template:Ethnologue22
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Template:Ethnologue22
  19. ↑ Template:Ethnologue22
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Romanian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  25. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  31. ↑ Language profile Macedonian Template:Webarchive, UCLA International Institute
  32. ↑ Macedonian language Template:Webarchive on UCLA
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". p. 351.
  42. ↑ Kasapoğlu Çengel, Hülya (2004). Ukrayna'daki Urum Türkleri ve Folkloru. Milli Folklor, 2004, Yıl. 16, S. 16, s. 59
  43. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ Template:Ethnologue22
  48. ↑ "Acord de l’Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL), adoptat en la reunió plenària del 9 de febrer del 2005, pel qual s’aprova el dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l’entitat del valencià" Template:Webarchive. Report from Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua about denomination and identity of Valencian.
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ An example of equal treatment of Malaysian and Indonesian: the Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu database from the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka has a "Istilah MABBIM" section dedicated to documenting Malaysian, Indonesian and Bruneian official terminologies: see example
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Registration required
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  59. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  60. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". (ÖNB).
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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