True toad
Template:Short description Template:Automatic taxobox
A true toad is any member of the family Bufonidae, in the order Anura (frogs and toads). This is the only family of anurans in which all members are known as toads, although some may be called frogs (such as harlequin frogs). The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera, Bufo being the best known.
History
Bufonidae is thought to have originated in South America. Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup of Gondwana, about 78–99 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous.[1] In contrast, other studies have dated the origin of the group to the early Paleocene.[2] The bufonids likely radiated out of South America during the Eocene, with the entire radiation occurring during the Eocene to Oligocene, marking an extremely rapid divergence likely facilitated by the Paleogene's changing climatic conditions.[2]
Taxonomy
The following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,[3] Chan et al., 2016,[4] Chandramouli et al., 2016,[5] and Kok et al., 2017[2] Script error: No such module "Clade".
Ingerophrynus alongside Leptophryne was grouped as basal to the clade containing all other Southeast Asian toad genera and Ghatophryne by Portik and Papenfuss, but was found to group with Phrynoidis and Rentapia by Chan et al. Ghatophryne was grouped with Phrynoidis and Rentapia by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group with Pelophryne and Ansonia by Chan et al. In addition, Sabahphrynus was grouped with Strauchbufo and Bufo by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group with Pelophryne, Ansonia, and Ghatophryne by Chan et al.
Characteristics
True toads are widespread and are native to every continent except Australia and Antarctica, inhabiting a variety of environments, from arid areas to rainforest. Most lay eggs in paired strings that hatch into tadpoles, although, in the genus Nectophrynoides, the eggs hatch directly into miniature toads.[6]
All true toads are toothless and generally warty in appearance. They have a pair of parotoid glands on the back of their heads. These glands contain an alkaloid poison which the toads excrete when stressed. The poison in the glands contains a number of toxins causing different effects. Bufotoxin is a general term. Different animals contain significantly different substances and proportions of substances. Some, like the cane toad Rhinella marina, are more toxic than others. Some "psychoactive toads", such as the Colorado River toad Incilius alvarius,[7] have been used recreationally for the effects of their bufotoxin.
Depending on the species, male or female toads may possess a Bidder's organ, a trait unique to all bufonids except genera Melanophryniscus and Truebella.[8] Under the right conditions, the organ becomes an active ovary.[9]
The loss of teeth has arisen in frogs independently over 20 times. Notably, all members of Bufonidae are toothless. Another Anuran family with a comparable degree of edentulism is the family Microhylidae.[10]
Reproduction
Internal fertilization occurs in four bufonid genera.[11]
- Mertensophryne (some species)
- Nectophrynoides (presumably all species)
- Altiphrynoides malcolmi (one out of two species in the genus Altiphrynoides)
- Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis (the sole species in the monotypic genus Nimbaphrynoides)
Ascaphus (all species) and Eleutherodactylus (two species, E. coqui and E. jasperi) are the only other frog genera that have internal fertilization.[11] Limnonectes larvaepartus also has internal fertilization.[12]
Taxonomy and genera
The family Bufonidae contains over 570 species among 52 genera.
| Genus name and author | Common name | Species |
|---|---|---|
| Adenomus Cope, 1861Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Dwarf toads | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Altiphrynoides Dubois, 1987Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Ethiopian toads | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Amazophrynella Fouquet et al., 2012Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 12 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Anaxyrus Tschudi, 1845Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 23 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Ansonia Stoliczka, 1870Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Stream toads | 34 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Atelopus Duméril & Bibron, 1841Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Stubfoot toads | 96 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Barbarophryne Beukema, de Pous, Donaire-Barroso, Bogaerts, Garcia-Porta, Escoriza, Arribas, El Mouden, and Carranza, 2013 (1 sp.)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Tiznit toad; Brongersma's toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Blythophryne Chandramouli et al., 2016Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[13] | Andaman bush toads | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Bufo Garsault, 1764Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Toads | 18 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Bufoides Pillai & Yazdani, 1973Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Mawblang toads; Rock toads | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Bufotes Rafinesque, 1815Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Palearctic green toads | 15 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Capensibufo Grandison, 1980Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Cape toads | 5 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Churamiti Channing & Stanley, 2002Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Dendrophryniscus Jiménez de la Espada, 1871Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Tree toads | 16 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Didynamipus Andersson, 1903Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Four-digit toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Duttaphrynus Frost et al., 2006Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Dutta's toads | 23 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Epidalea Cope, 1864Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Natterjack toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Firouzophrynus Safaei-Mahroo and Ghaffari, 2020Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Firouz's toads | 5 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Frostius Cannatella, 1986Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Frost's toads | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Ghatophryne Biju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader, and Bossuyt, 2009Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Incilius Cope, 1863Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Central American toads; Middle American toads; Cerro Utyum toads | 39 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Ingerophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Hainan toads | 12 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Kenyaphrynoides Liedtke, Malonza, Wasonga, Müller & Loader, 2023 | Mount Kenya forest toads | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Laurentophryne Tihen, 1960Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Parker's tree toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Leptophryne Fitzinger, 1843Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Indonesia tree toads | 3 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Melanophryniscus Gallardo, 1961Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | South American redbelly toads | 29 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Mertensophryne Tihen, 1960Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Snouted frogs | 14 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Metaphryniscus Señaris, Ayarzagüena & Gorzula, 1994Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Nannophryne Günther, 1870Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 4 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Nectophryne Buchholz & Peters, 1875Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | African tree toads | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Nectophrynoides Buchholz & Peters, 1875Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | African live-bearing toads | 13 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Nimbaphrynoides Dubois, 1987Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Nimba toads | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Oreophrynella Boulenger, 1895Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Bush toads | 8 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Osornophryne Ruiz-Carranza & Hernández-Camacho, 1976Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Plump toads | 11 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Parapelophryne Fei, Ye & Jiang, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Pedostibes Günther, 1876Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Asian tree toads | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Pelophryne Barbour, 1938Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Flathead toads | 13 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Peltophryne Fitzinger, 1843Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Caribbean toads | 14 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Phrynoidis Fitzinger in Treitschke, 1842Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Rough toads | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Poyntonophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Pygmy toads | 11 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Pseudobufo Tschudi, 1838Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | False toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Rentapia Chan, Grismer, Zachariah, Brown, and Abraham, 2016Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Rhaebo Cope, 1862Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Cope toads | 13 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Rhinella Fitzinger, 1826Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Beaked toads | 94 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Sabahphrynus Matsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Sabah earless toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Schismaderma Smith, 1849Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | African split-skin toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Sclerophrys Tschudi, 1838Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 44 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Sigalegalephrynus Smart, Sarker, Arifin, Harvey, Sidik, Hamidy, Kurniawan, and Smith, 2017Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Puppet toads | 5 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Strauchbufo Fei, Ye, and Jiang, 2012Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Siberian toad; Mongolian toad | 1 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Truebella Graybeal & Cannatella, 1995Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Vandijkophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Van Dijk's toads | 6 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Werneria Poche, 1903Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Smalltongue toads | 6 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Wolterstorffina Mertens, 1939Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | Wolterstorff toads | 3 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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| Xanthophryne Biju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader & Bossuyt, 2009Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". | 2 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
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The family also contains an incertae sedis species, "Bufo" scorteccii Balletto & Cherchi, 1970Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"..
References
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- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Piprek, Rafal P., et al. “Bidder's Organ – Structure, Development and Function.” The International Journal of Developmental Biology, vol. 58, no. 10-11–12, 2014, pp. 819–27. Crossref, doi:10.1387/ijdb.140147rp.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Paluh, Daniel J., et al. “Rampant Tooth Loss Across 200 Million Years of Frog Evolution.” BioRxiv, 2021. Crossref, doi:10.1101/2021.02.04.429809.
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ S. R. Chandramouli, Karthikeyan, Vasudevan, S Harikrishnan, Sushil Kumar Dutta, S Jegath Janani, Richa Sharma, Indraneil Das, Ramesh Aggarwal. “A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)” ZooKeys (2016) 555: 57-90, https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.555.6522
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- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Stebbins, Robert. Western Reptiles & Amphibians (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Co., 2003.
- Halliday, Tim R., and Kraig Adler (editors). The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians. Facts on File, New York, 2002.
External links
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Sister project
- Tolweb.org: Bufonidae
- Bufonidae.com Template:Webarchive
- Amphibian and Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia - Family Bufonidae
- FED.us
- Bufonidae recordings from the British Library Sound Archive
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