Okinawan language

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Okinawan (, , Template:Transliteration, ), or more precisely Central Okinawan, is a Northern Ryukyuan language spoken primarily in the southern half of the island of Okinawa, as well as in the surrounding islands of Kerama, Kumejima, Tonaki, Aguni and a number of smaller peripheral islands.Template:Sfn Central Okinawan distinguishes itself from the speech of Northern Okinawa, which is classified independently as the Kunigami language. Both languages are listed by UNESCO as endangered.Template:Sfn

Though Okinawan encompasses a number of local dialects,Template:Sfn the Shuri–Naha variant is generally recognized as the de facto standard,Template:Sfn as it had been used as the official language of the Ryukyu KingdomTemplate:Sfn since the reign of King Shō Shin (1477–1526). Moreover, as the former capital of Shuri was built around the royal palace, the language used by the royal court became the regional and literary standard,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which thus flourished in songs and poems written during that era.

Today, most Okinawans speak Okinawan Japanese, although a number of people still speak the Okinawan language, most often the elderly. Within Japan, Okinawan is often not seen as a language unto itself but is referred to as the , or more specifically the . Okinawan speakers are undergoing language shift as they switch to Japanese, since language use in Okinawa today is far from stable. Okinawans are assimilating and accenting standard Japanese due to the similarity of the two languages, the standardized and centralized education system, the media, business and social contact with mainlanders and previous attempts from Japan to suppress the native languages.Template:Sfn Okinawan is still kept alive in popular music, tourist shows and in theaters featuring a local drama called Template:Transliteration, which depict local customs and manners.Template:Sfn

History

Pre-Ryukyu Kingdom

Okinawan is a Japonic language, derived from Proto-Japonic and is therefore related to Japanese. The split between Old Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages has been estimated to have occurred as early as the 1st century AD to as late as the 12th century AD. Chinese and Japanese characters were first introduced by a Japanese missionary in 1265.

Ryukyu Kingdom era

Pre-Satsuma

Template:Transliteration was a much more popular writing system than kanji; thus, Okinawan poems were commonly written solely in Template:Transliteration or with little kanji. Okinawan became the official language under King Shō Shin. The Omoro Sōshi, a compilation of ancient Ryukyuan poems, was written in an early form of Okinawan, known as Old Okinawan.

Post-Satsuma to annexation

After Ryukyu became a vassal of Satsuma Domain, kanji gained more prominence in poetry; however, official Ryukyuan documents were written in Classical Chinese. During this time, the language gradually evolved into Modern Okinawan.

In 1609, the Ryukyu Kingdom was colonized by the Satsuma Domain in the south of Japan. However, Satsuma did not fully invade the Ryukyu in fear of colliding with China, which had a stronger trading relationship with the Ryukyu at the time.

Japanese annexation to end of World War II

When Ryukyu was annexed by Japan in 1879, the majority of people on Okinawa Island spoke Okinawan. Within 10 years, the Japanese government began an assimilation policy of Japanization, where Ryukyuan languages were gradually suppressed. The education system was the heart of Japanization, where Okinawan children were taught Japanese and punished for speaking their native language, being told that their language was just a "dialect".

Language shift to Japanese in Ryukyu/Okinawa began in 1879 when the Japanese government annexed Ryukyu and established Okinawa Prefecture. The prefectural office mainly consisted of people from Kagoshima Prefecture where the Satsuma Domain used to be. This caused the modernization of Okinawa as well as language shift to Japanese. As a result, Japanese became the standard language for administration, education, media, and literature.

In 1902, the began the linguistic unification of Japan to Standard Japanese. This caused the linguistic stigmatization of many local varieties in Japan including Okinawan. As the discrimination accelerated, Okinawans themselves started to abandon their languages and shifted to Standard Japanese.

Okinawan dialect cards, similar to Welsh Not in Wales, were adopted in Okinawa, Japan.

By 1945, many Okinawans spoke Japanese, and many were bilingual. During the Battle of Okinawa, some Okinawans were killed by Japanese soldiers for speaking Okinawan.

American occupation

Under American administration, there was an attempt to revive and standardize Okinawan, but this proved difficult and was shelved in favor of Japanese. General Douglas MacArthur attempted to promote Okinawan languages and culture through education. Multiple English words were introduced.

Return to Japan to present day

After Okinawa's reversion to Japanese sovereignty, Japanese continued to be the dominant language used, and the majority of the youngest generations only speak Okinawan Japanese. There have been attempts to revive Okinawan by notable people such as Byron Fija and Seijin Noborikawa, but few native Okinawans know the language.

Outside of Japan

File:Colonia Okinawa.jpg

Sign in Okinawa Uno (a colonia in Bolivia), in Spanish and Okinawan: the text reads , Menso~re Okinawa-e.

The Okinawan language is still spoken by communities of Okinawan immigrants in Brazil. The first immigrants from the island of Okinawa to Brazil landed in the Port of Santos in 1908 drawn by the hint of work and farmable land. Once in a new country and far from their homeland, they found themselves in a place where there was no prohibition of their language, allowing them to willingly speak, celebrate and preserve their speech and culture, up to the present day. Currently the Okinawan-Japanese centers and communities in the State of São Paulo are a world reference to this language helping it to stay alive. Courses in Okinawan language and literature are offered at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa and books in Uchinaaguchi have been published in Hawaii.

Classification

Okinawan is sometimes grouped with Kunigami as the Okinawan languages; however, not all linguists accept this grouping, some claiming that Kunigami is a dialect of Okinawan. Okinawan is also grouped with Amami (or the Amami languages) as the Northern Ryukyuan languages.

Dialect of the Japanese language

Since the creation of Okinawa Prefecture, Okinawan has been labeled a dialect of Japanese as part of a policy of assimilation. Later, Japanese linguists, such as Tōjō Misao, who studied the Ryukyuan languages argued that they are indeed dialects. This is due to the misconception that Japan is a homogeneous state (one people, one language, one nation), and classifying the Ryukyuan languages as such would discredit this assumption. The present-day official stance of the Japanese government remains that Okinawan is a dialect, and it is common within the Japanese population for it to be called or , which means "Okinawa dialect (of Japanese)". The policy of assimilation, coupled with increased interaction between Japan and Okinawa through media and economics, has led to the development of Okinawan Japanese, which is a dialect of Japanese influenced by the Okinawan and Kunigami languages. Japanese and Okinawan only share 60% of the same vocabulary, despite both being Japonic languages.

Dialects of the Ryukyuan language

Okinawan linguist Seizen Nakasone states that the Ryukyuan languages are in fact groupings of similar dialects. As each community has its own distinct dialect, there is no "one language". Nakasone attributes this diversity to the isolation caused by immobility, citing the story of his mother who wanted to visit the town of Nago but never made the 25 km trip before she died of old age.

The contemporary dialects in Ryukyuan language are divided into three large groups: Amami-Okinawa dialects, Miyako-Yaeyama dialects, and the Yonaguni dialect. All of them are mutually unintelligible. Amami is located in the Kagoshima prefecture but it belongs to the Ryukyuan group linguistically. The Yonaguni dialect is very different in phonetics from the other groups but it comes closest to the Yaeyama dialect lexically.

Its own distinct language

Outside Japan, Okinawan is considered a separate language from Japanese. This was first proposed by Basil Hall Chamberlain, who compared the relationship between Okinawan and Japanese to that of the Romance languages. UNESCO has marked it as an endangered language.

Sociolinguistics

UNESCO listed six Okinawan language varieties as endangered languages in 2009. The endangerment of Okinawan is largely due to the shift to Standard Japanese. Throughout history, Okinawan languages have been treated as dialects of Standard Japanese. For instance, in the 20th century, many schools used "dialect tags" to punish the students who spoke in Okinawan. Consequently, many of the remaining speakers today are choosing not to transmit their languages to younger generations due to the stigmatization of the languages in the past.

There have been several revitalization efforts made to reverse this language shift. However, Okinawan is still poorly taught in formal institutions due to the lack of support from the Okinawan Education Council: education in Okinawa is conducted exclusively in Japanese, and children do not study Okinawan as their second language at school. As a result, at least two generations of Okinawans have grown up without any proficiency in their local languages both at home and school.

Okinawan vocabulary is about 39% lexically similar with Japanese and The Okinawan language is only 71% lexically similar to, or cognate with, standard Japanese. Even the southernmost Japanese dialect (Kagoshima dialect) is only 72% cognate with the northernmost Ryukyuan language (Amami). The Kagoshima dialect of Japanese, however, is 80% lexically similar to Standard Japanese.

Phonology

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	Template:IPA link Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Close-Mid	Template:IPA link Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link Template:IPA link
Open		Template:IPA link Template:IPA link

The Okinawan language has five vowels, all of which may be long or short, though the short vowels and are quite rare,Template:Sfn as they occur only in a few native Okinawan words with heavy syllables with the pattern or , such as mensōrē "welcome" or tonfā. The close back vowels and are truly rounded, rather than the compressed vowels of standard Japanese.

Consonants

The Okinawan language counts some 20 distinctive segments shown in the chart below, with major allophones presented in parentheses.

IPA chart of Okinawan consonants

	Labial	Alveolar	Alveolo- palatal	Palatal	Labio- velar	Velar	Uvular/ Glottal
Nasal	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link				()	()
Plosive	Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Fricative	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link  (Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)			Template:IPA link
Flap		Template:IPA link
Approximant				Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

The only consonant that can occur as a syllable coda is the archiphoneme . Many analyses treat it as an additional phoneme , the moraic nasal, though it never contrasts with or .

The consonant system of the Okinawan language is fairly similar to that of standard Japanese, but it does present a few differences on the phonemic and allophonic level. Namely, Okinawan retains the labialized consonants and which were lost in Late Middle Japanese (though they are retained in a handful of Modern Japanese dialects), possesses a glottal stop , features a voiceless bilabial fricative distinct from the aspirate , and has two distinctive affricates which arose from a number of different sound processes. Additionally, Okinawan lacks the major allophones and found in Japanese, having historically fronted the vowel to after the alveolars , consequently merging tsu into chi, su into shi, and both dzu and zu into ji. It also lacks as a distinctive phoneme, having merged it into .

Bilabial and glottal fricatives

The bilabial fricative has sometimes been transcribed as the cluster , since, like Japanese, allophonically labializes into before the high vowel , and does not occur before the rounded vowel . This suggests that an overlap between and exists, and so the contrast in front of other vowels can be denoted through labialization. However, this analysis fails to take account of the fact that Okinawan has not fully undergone the diachronic change → → as in Japanese, and that the suggested clusterization and labialization into is unmotivated.Template:Sfn Consequently, the existence of must be regarded as independent of , even though the two overlap. Barring a few words that resulted from the former change, the aspirate also arose from the odd lenition of and , as well as words loaned from other dialects. Before the glide and the high vowel , it is pronounced closer to , as in Japanese.

Palatalization

The plosive consonants and historically palatalized and affricated into before and occasionally following the glide and the high vowel : → chiri "fog", and → chura- "beautiful". This change preceded vowel raising, so that instances where arose from did not trigger palatalization: → kī "hair". Their voiced counterparts and underwent the same effect, becoming under such conditions: → Template:Scnnaji "eel", and → nukujiri "saw"; but → kagin "seasoning".

Both and may or may not also allophonically affricate before the mid vowel , though this pronunciation is increasingly rare. Similarly, the fricative consonant palatalizes into before the glide and the vowel , including when historically derives from : → shikē "world". It may also palatalize before the vowel , especially so in the context of topicalization: dushi → dusē or dushē "(topic) friend".

In general, sequences containing the palatal consonant are relatively rare and tend to exhibit depalatalization. For example, tends to merge with ( myāku → nāku "Miyako"); has merged into and ( → rū ~ dū "dragon"); and has mostly become ( shui → sui "Shuri").

Flapping and fortition

The voiced plosive and the flap tend to merge, with the first becoming a flap in word-medial position, and the second sometimes becoming a plosive in word-initial position. For example, rū "dragon" may be strengthened into dū, and hashidu "door" conversely flaps into hashiru. The two sounds do, however, still remain distinct in a number of words and verbal constructions.

Glottal stop

Okinawan also features a distinctive glottal stop that historically arose from a process of glottalization of word-initial vowels.Template:Sfn Hence, all vowels in Okinawan are predictably glottalized at the beginning of words ( → ami "rain"), save for a few exceptions. High vowel loss or assimilation following this process created a contrast with glottalized approximants and nasal consonants.Template:Sfn Compare → Template:Scwa "pig" to wa "I", or → Template:Scnni "rice plant" to → nni "chest".Template:Sfn

Moraic nasal

The moraic nasal has been posited in most descriptions of Okinawan phonology. Like Japanese, (transcribed using the small capital ) occupies a full mora and its precise place of articulation will vary depending on the following consonant. Before other labial consonants, it will be pronounced closer to a syllabic bilabial nasal , as in Template:Scnma "horse". Before velar and labiovelar consonants, it will be pronounced as a syllabic velar nasal , as in bingata, a method of dying clothes. And before alveolar and alveolo-palatal consonants, it becomes a syllabic alveolar nasal , as in kanda "vine". In some varieties, it instead becomes a syllabic uvular nasal . Elsewhere, its exact realization remains unspecified, and it may vary depending on the first sound of the next word or morpheme. In isolation and at the end of utterances, it is realized as a velar nasal .

Correspondences with Japanese

Correspondences between Japanese and Okinawan

Japanese	Okinawan	Notes
	Template:Sfn
	Template:Sfn
	Template:Sfn
		also occurs
		also occurs
		, also occurs
		, also occurs
		; formerly distinguished as also occurs
		; formerly distinguished as
		and have merged
		Moraic also occurs
	~	also occurs, but rarely
	~
		Moraic also occurs
		is unaffected
		Tends to become medially

Orthography

File:Tamaudun21bs4272.jpg

The Tamaoton no Hinomon (), referred to as the Tamaudun no Hinomon in modern Japanese, is the oldest known inscription of Okinawan using both hiragana and kanji.

The Okinawan language was historically written using an admixture of kanji and hiragana. The hiragana syllabary is believed to have first been introduced from mainland Japan to the Ryukyu Kingdom some time during the reign of king Shunten in the early thirteenth century.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It is likely that Okinawans were already in contact with hanzi (Chinese characters) due to extensive trade between the Ryukyu Kingdom and China, Japan and Korea. However, hiragana gained more widespread acceptance throughout the Ryukyu Islands, and most documents and letters were exclusively transcribed using this script, in contrast to in Japan where writing solely in hiragana was considered "women's script". The Omoro Sōshi (), a sixteenth-century compilation of songs and poetry,Template:Sfn and a few preserved writs of appointments dating from the same century were written solely in Hiragana.Template:Sfn Kanji were gradually adopted due to the growing influence of mainland Japan and to the linguistic affinity between the Okinawan and Japanese languages.Template:Sfn However, it was mainly limited to affairs of high importance and to documents sent towards the mainland. The oldest inscription of Okinawan exemplifying its use along with Hiragana can be found on a stone stele at the Tamaudun mausoleum, dating back to 1501.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

After the invasion of Okinawa by the Shimazu clan of Satsuma in 1609, Okinawan ceased to be used in official affairs.Template:Sfn It was replaced by standard Japanese writing and a form of Classical Chinese writing known as kanbun.Template:Sfn Despite this change, Okinawan still continued to prosper in local literature up until the nineteenth century. Following the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government abolished the domain system and formally annexed the Ryukyu Islands to Japan as the Okinawa Prefecture in 1879.Template:Sfn To promote national unity, the government then introduced standard education and opened Japanese-language schools based on the Tokyo dialect.Template:Sfn Students were discouraged and chastised for speaking or even writing in the local "dialect", notably through the use of "dialect cards" (). As a result, Okinawan gradually ceased to be written entirely until the American takeover in 1945.

File:スクリーンショット 2025-02-19 113245.png

Chinese translation of Okinawan Script (Hiragana and Katakana) written by Jo Hoko (徐葆光) in 1721

Since then, Japanese and American scholars have variously transcribed the regional language using a number of ad hoc romanization schemes or the katakana syllabary to demarcate its foreign nature with standard Japanese. Proponents of Okinawan tend to be more traditionalist and continue to write the language using hiragana with kanji. In any case, no standard or consensus concerning spelling issues has ever been formalized, so discrepancies between modern literary works are common.

Syllabary

Technically, they are not syllables, but rather morae. Each mora in Okinawan will consist of one or two kana characters. If two, then a smaller version of kana follows the normal sized kana. In each cell of the table below, the top row is the kana (hiragana to the left, katakana to the right of the dot), the middle row in rōmaji (Hepburn romanization), and the bottom row in IPA.

		Vowel
		a	i	u	e	o	ya	yi	yu	ye	yo	wa	wi	wu	we	wo	n
rowspan="100%" Template:Vert header	(none)	a	i	u	e	o	ya	yi	yu	ye	yo	wa	wi	wu	we	wo	n (, , )
Template:Sc (glottal stop)	Template:Sca	Template:Sci	Template:Scu	Template:Sce	Template:Sco	Template:Scya		Template:Scyu		Template:Scyo	Template:Scwa	Template:Scwi		Template:Scwe	Template:Scwo	Template:Scn (, )
k	ka	ki	ku	ke	ko	kya		kyu		kyo	kwa	kwi		kwe	kwo
g	ga	gi	gu	ge	go	gya		gyu		gyo	gwa	gwi		gwe	gwo
s	sa	si	su	se	so
sh	sha	shi	shu	she	sho
z	za	zi	zu	ze	zo
j	ja	ji	ju	je	jo
t	ta	ti	tu	te	to
d	da	di	du	de	do
ts	tsa	tsi	tsu	tse	tso
ch	cha	chi	chu	che	cho	ya		yu		yo
n	na	ni	nu	ne	no	nya		nyu		nyo	long vowel double consonant ~(a, i, u, e, o) ~ (Any consonant)
h	ha	hi		he	ho	hya		hyu		hyo
f	fa	fi	fu/hu	fe	fo
b	ba	bi	bu	be	bo
p	pa	pi	pu	pe	po
m	ma	mi	mu	me	mo	mya		myu		myo
r	ra	ri	ru	re	ro	rya		ryu		ryo

Grammar

Okinawan follows a subject–object–verb word order and makes large use of particles as in Japanese. Okinawan retains a number of Japonic grammatical features also found in Old Japanese but lost (or highly restricted) in Modern Japanese, such as a distinction between the terminal form () and the attributive form (), the genitive function of ga (lost in the Shuri dialect), the nominative function of nu (cf. Japanese: no), as well as honorific/plain distribution of ga and nu in nominative use.

Okinawan conjugation, for comparison in the framework of Classical Japanese

書ちゅん "to write" Classical Japanese: kaku
		Shuri		Classical Japanese
Irrealis		書か	kaka-		kaka-
Continuative		書ち	kachi-		kaki-
Terminal		書ちゅん	kachun		kaku
Attributive		書ちゅる	kachuru		kaku
Realis		書き	kaki-		kake-
Imperative		書き	kaki		kake

One etymology given for the -un and -uru endings is the continuative form suffixed with uri ("to be; to exist", cf. Classical Japanese: wori): -un developed from the terminal form uri; -uru developed from the attributive form uru, i.e.:

• kachuru derives from kachi-uru;
• kachun derives from kachi-uri; and
• yumun ("to read", cf. Japanese: yomu) derives from yumi + uri.

A similar etymology is given for the terminal -san and attributive -saru endings for adjectives: the stem suffixed with sa (nominalises adjectives, i.e. high → height, hot → heat), suffixed with ari ("to be; to exist; to have", cf. Classical Japanese: ari), i.e.:

• takasan ("high; tall", cf. Japanese: takai) derives from taka-sa-ari;
• achisan ("hot; warm", cf. Japanese: atsui) derives from atsu-sa-ari; and
• yutasaru ("good; pleasant", cf. Japanese: 豊かな yutakana "abundant; plentiful") derives from yuta-sa-aru.

Parts of speech

Nature of the part of speech in a sentence							Part of speech
Independent	No conjugation	Can become a subject					Noun (名詞)
							Pronoun (代名詞)
		Cannot become a subject		Other words come after	Modifies	Modifies a declinable word	Adverb (副詞)
						Modifies a substantive	Prenominal adjective (連体詞)
					Connects		Conjunction (接続詞)
				Other words may not come after			Interjection / exclamation (感動詞)
	Conjugates	Declinable word	Shows movements		Conclusive form ends in ""		Verb (動詞)
			Shows the property or state		Conclusive form ends in ""		Adjective (形容詞)
			Shows existence or decision of a certain thing		"" attaches to a substantive such as a noun		Existential-identificative verb (存在動詞)
			Shows state of existence of events		"" attaches to the word that shows state		Adjectival verb (形容動詞)
Dependent	Conjugates	Makes up for the meanings of conjugated words			Conclusive form ends in ""		Auxiliary Verb (助動詞)
	No conjugation	Attaches to other words and shows the relationship between words					Particle (助詞)
		Attaches to the head of a word and adds meaning or makes a new word					Prefix (接頭語)
		Attaches to the end of a word and adds meaning or makes a new word					Suffix (接尾語)

Nouns (名詞)

Nouns are classified as independent, non-conjugating part of speech that can become a subject of a sentence

Pronouns (代名詞)

Pronouns are classified the same as nouns, except that pronouns are more broad.

Okinawan pronouns

		Singular				Plural
		Personal	Demonstrative			Personal	Demonstrative
			Thing	Place	Direction		Thing	Place	Direction
1st person
2nd person
3rd person	Proximal	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
	Medial	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
	Distal	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
Indefinite		Template:Nihongo3 Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3 Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3 Template:Nihongo3

Adverbs (副詞)

Adverbs are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech that cannot become a subject of a sentence and modifies a declinable word (用言; verbs, adverbs, adjectives) that comes after the adverb. There are two main categories to adverbs and several subcategories within each category, as shown in the table below.

Okinawan adverbs

	Adverbs that shows state or condition
	Okinawan	Japanese	English	Example
rowspan=10 Template:Vert header		Template:Plainlist	Always	Template:Fs interlinear
		Occasionally	Template:Fs interlinear
		Already	Template:Fs interlinear
	Template:Category handler	Shortly	Template:Fs interlinear
		Yet	Template:Fs interlinear
		Always	Template:Fs interlinear
	Template:Plainlist	A little	Template:Fs interlinear
		Suddenly	Template:Fs interlinear
		Normally	Template:Fs interlinear
		A little while	Template:Fs interlinear
rowspan=10 Template:Vert header			A little	Template:Fs interlinear
		Many, a lot of	Template:Fs interlinear
		A lot	Template:Fs interlinear
		Abundant	Template:Fs interlinear
Template:Plainlist		A lot	Template:Fs interlinear
		A lot	Template:Fs interlinear
		Extremely, a lot of	Template:Fs interlinear
		Full, a lot	Template:Fs interlinear
		More	Template:Fs interlinear
		A little	Template:Fs interlinear
rowspan=12 Template:Vert header			Very	Template:Fs interlinear Template:Fs interlinear
		Fairly, quite	Template:Fs interlinear
		Not too much	Template:Fs interlinear
		Often	くぬ海んじえ　いーるく、泳（うい）じゅんどー。 Kunu umi nji e īruku, uijundō. この海では、良く、泳ぐよ。 Kono umi de wa, yoku, oyoguyo. I often swim in this ocean.
		To a sickening degree	昨日（ちぬー）や　にりるか、荷（にー）、かやーちゃん。 Chinū ya niriruka, nī, kayāchan. 昨日は、うんざりするほど、荷を運んだ。 Kinō wa, unzarisuruhodo, ni wo hokonda. I carried luggage to a sickening degree yesterday.
		To the extent someone gets irritated	次郎（じらー）が　作（ちゅく）たる書類や　課長（かちょー）が　わじるか、間違（ばっぺー）とーたん。 Jirā ga chukutaru shorui ya kachō ga wajiruka, bappētōtan. 次郎が作った書類は課長が怒るほど、間違っていた。 Jirā ga tsukutta shorui wa kachō ga okoruhodo, machigetteita. The documents that Jira made had so many errors that the department chief got irritated.
		Very	我（わ）んねー　あいゆか、腸（わた）ぬ病（や）でぃ、ひらきとーたん。 Wannē aiyuka, wata nu yadi, hirakitōtan. 私はとても、お腹が痛くて、しゃがんでいた。 Watashi wa totemo, onaka ga itakute, shagandeita. I had a very bad stomach ache and was squatting down.
		Even more	いったー兄（やっちい）や　ゆくん、ちじどぅやる。 Ittā yatchī ya yukun, chijiduyaru. 君達の兄は余計、駄目だ。 Kimitachi no ani wa yokei, dame da. Your brother is even worse.
		Even more	時間ぬ経（た）ちいねー、彼（あり）が　病（やんめー）や　たった、悪（わ）っさなゆんどー。 Jikan nu tachīnē, ari ga yanmē ya tatta, wassanayundō. 時間が経てば、彼の病気は余計、悪くなるよ。 Jikan ga tateba, kare no byōki wa yokei, warukunaruyo. If you wait longer, his illness will be even worse.
		Full, enough	むのー　なー、ちゅふぁーら、食（か）だん。 Munō nā, chufāra, kadan. 食事はもう、一杯、食べた。 Shokuji wa mō, ippai, tabeta. I have already had enough food
		Not so...	主（すー）や　三線（さんしん）や　あんすかー、上手（じょーじ）えあらん。 Sū ya sanshin ya ansukā, jōji earan. お父さんは三味線はそれほどは、上手ではない。 Otō-san wa shamisen sorehodowa jōzu dewanai. Father is not so good at shamisen.
		Dispersed, scattered	くまぬまんぐらー　散（ち）ん散（ち）んとぅどぅ、家（やー）やーたる。 Kuma nu mangurā chinchintu du, yā yātaru. この辺りは散り散りに家がなった。 Kono atari wa chirijirini ie ga natta. Houses were scattered in this area.
rowspan=20 Template:Vert header			Quickly	今日（ちゅー）や　早（へー）く、揃（す）てぃ取（とぅ）らしよー。 Chū ya hēku, sutiturashiyō. 今日は早く、集まってくれよ。 Kyō wa hayaku, atsumattekureyo. Please gather quickly today.
		Slowly	むのー慌（あわ）慌てぃらんようい、ようんなー、食（か）めー。 Munō awatiran'youi, younnā, kamē. 食事は慌てず、ゆっくり、食べよ。 Shokuji wa awatezu, yukkuri, tabeyo. Don't rush when you eat, eat slowly.
		Naturally	とーないねー、なんくる、じんぶんぬん　出（ん）じてぃ来（ち）ゅーさに。 Tōnainē, nankuru, jinbunmen njitichūsani. いざとなれば、自ずと、知恵も出てくるだろう。 Iza to nareba, onozuto, chie mo detekuru darō. When the time comes, ideas will automatically come to our minds.
		Adverb for something heavy floating down on water	川（かー）ぬ上（うい）ぬ傍（はた）から　まぎ桃（むむ）ぬ　ゆったいくゎったい、流（るー）りてぃ来（ち）ゃん。 Kā nu ui nu hata kara magi mumu nu yuttaikwattai, rūritichan. 川の上の方から大きな桃がどんぶらこと、流れて来た。 Kawa no ue no hō kara ōkina momo ga donburakoto, nagaretekita. A giant peach came floating down the river.
		Reluctantly, Nostalgically	なぐりなぐりとぅ、別りぬ挨拶（えーさち）すん。 Nagurinaguritu, wakari nu ēsachi sun. なごりなごりと、別れの挨拶をする。 Nagorinagorito, wakare no aisatsu wo suru. We said goodbye reluctantly.
		Nostalgically	しんじんとぅ、節歌やてぃん、歌てぃんだ。 Shinjintu, fushiuta yatin, utatinda. しみじみと、節歌でも、歌ってみよう。 Shimijimito, fushiuta demo, utattemiyō. Let's sing a traditional song nostalgically.
		Gradually	太陽（てぃだ）ー　西（いりー）んかい　次第次第（しでーしでー）、落（う）てぃてぃ行ちゅん。 Tidā irī nkai shidēshidē, utitīchun. 太陽は西へ次第に、沈んで行く。 Taiyō wa nishi he shidaini, shizundeiku. The sun gradually sets to the west.
		Completely	烏（がらさー）ぬ　ちり袋（ぶくる）、ちゅらーさ、きざあちねーらん。 Garasā nu chiribukuru, churāsa, kizāchinēran. 烏がゴミ袋を、残らず、漁ってしまった。 Karasu ga gomibukuro, nokorazu, asatteshimatta. The crows completely rummaged through the garbage bags.
		Too much, excessively	どぅく、ゆくしびけー、しーねー、罰（ばち）、被（かん）じゅん。 Duku, yukushi bikē, shīnē, bachi, kanjun. あまりにも、嘘ばかりついたら、罰が当たる。 Amarinimo, uso bakari tsuitara, batsu ga ataru. If you tell too many lies, you will incur divine punishment.
		Gradually	汝（なー）笛（ふぁんそー）ぬ音（うとぅ）お　だんだんだんだん、ましなとおん。 Nā fansō nu utu o dandandandan, mashinatōn. あなたの笛の音は段々、良くなっている。 Anata no fue no oto wa dandan, yokunatteiru. You are gradually becoming better at playing flute.
		Gradually	いがろうん、次第（しでえ）に、年（とぅし）、取（とぅ）たんやあ。 Igaroun, shidēni, tushi, tutan'yā. 我々も次第に歳を取ったね。 Wareware mo shidaini toshi wo totta ne. We have gradually gotten old.
		Badly	どぅくだら、ひみちしいねえ、医者（いさ）んかい診しらんでえ。 Dukudara, himichi shīnē, isa nkai mishirandē. ひどく、せき込んだら、医者に診せないと。 Hidoku, seki kondara, isha ni misenaito. If you start to cough badly, you have to go see a doctor.
		Straight	くまから　あまんかい　まっすぐ、行ちいねえ、海んかい出（ん）じゆん。 Kuma kara ama nkai massugu, ichīnē, umi nkai njiyun. ここからあそこへ、まっすぐ、行くと、海に出る。 Koko kara asoko he, massugu, ikuto, umi ni deru. If you go straight from there, you will see the ocean.
		Correctly	汝（なー）や　沖縄口（うちなーぐちぇ）ー　まっとうば、使（ちか）りよお。 Nā ya uchināguchē mattouba, chikariyō. 君は沖縄語を正しく使ってよ。 Kimi wa okinawago wo tadashiku tsukatteyo. Please use Okinawan correctly.
		Properly	家（やー）や　だってぃどぅ、作（ちゅく）ゆんどお。 Yā ya dattidu, chukuyundō. 家はちゃんと、作るんだよ。 Ie wa chanto, tsukurundayo. You must build a house properly.
		Neatly	あんまあや　今日（ちゅう）や　だてん、すがとおん。 Anmā ya chū ya daten, sugatōn. 母は今日はきちんと、身なりを整えている。 Haha wa kyō wa kichinto, minari wo totonoeteiru. My mother has dressed neatly today.
		Freshly	断髪（だんぱち）さあに、さっぱっとぅ、そおん。 Danpachi sāni, sappattu, sōn. 散髪をして、さっぱりしている。 Sanbatsu wo shite, sappari shiteiru. Looking fresh after a haircut.
		Carefully	親（うや）ぬ言（ゆ）し、しかっとぅ、聞（ち）ちょうきよお。 Uya nu yushi, shikattu, chichoukiyō. 親の言うことをしっかり、聞いておけよ。 Oya no iukoto wo shikkari, kiiteokeyo. Listen to your parents carefully.
		Thoughtlessly, carelessly	あんしん、試験ー、うかっとぅお、受きららん。 Anshin, shikennō, ukattuo, ukiraran. それでも、試験はうかつには受けられない。 Soredemo, shiken wa ukatsuniwa ukerarenai. You cannot take the exam thoughtlessly.
		Even more	うぬ病（やんめー）や　にじいねえ、たった、悪（わ）っさなゆんどお。 Unu yanmē ya nijīnē, tatta, wassanayundō. その病気は我慢すると、余計、悪くなるよ。 Sono byōki wa gaman suru to, yokei, warukunaruyo. If you endure your illness too much, it will get even worse.
Adverbs that shows judgement
	Okinawan	Japanese	English	Example
rowspan=3 Template:Vert header			If	Template:Fs interlinear
		Even if	Template:Fs interlinear
		For example, if you compare	Template:Fs interlinear
rowspan=6 Template:Vert header			Indeed, surely	Template:Fs interlinear
		No way, no idea, unlikely, it is impossible that...	Template:Fs interlinear
		By chance	むしや、うんじょー　我（わん）とぅちるめーや　あらに。 もしや、あなたは私と同じ歳ではないだろうか。 Are you as old as I am by any chance?
		Perhaps	むしか、今頃（なまぐる）、我事（わあくとぅ）、心配（しわ）しえ居（う）らんさに。 もしや、今頃、私のことを心配していないだろうな。 Perhaps, they might be worried about me now.
		No way, no idea, unlikely, it is impossible that...	まさか、今日（ちゅう）や　う祭（まち）いんでえ　思（うま）あんたん。 Masaka chūya umachī ndē umāntan まさか、今日はウマチーとは思わなかった。 I had no idea that today was the festival day.
		Really (intensifier)	あたまに、今日（ちゅう）や　暑（あち）さっさあやあ。 ほんとに、今日は暑いねえ。 It's really hot today.
rowspan=4 Template:Vert header			Please	どうでぃん、我（わあ）が　御願（うにげ）え、聞（ち）ちたぼうり。 どうか、私のお願いを聞いてください。 Please could you do me a favor?
		Please	たんでぃ、我（わん）にんかい　水（みじ）、飲（ぬ）まち呉（くぃ）みそおれえ。 どうぞ、私に水を飲ましてください。 Please let me drink some water.
		Always, have to	二男（じな）ぬうや　必（かんな）じ、サッカー部んかい　入（い）ゆんでぃ。 二男は必ず、サッカー部に入るんだと。 The second oldest son has to join the soccer team.
		Have to, at any cost	あぬ映画（えいぐゎ）、如何（ちゃあ）しん、見（ん）じいぶしゃん。 あの映画をどうしても、見たい。 I want to watch the movie at any cost.
rowspan=4 Template:Vert header			How	くぬパソコンや　如何（ちゃあ）し、動（んじゅ）かすが。 このパソコンはどうやって、動かすのか。 How do you use this computer?
		Really	みったい、うんじゅおー、我どぅ　抑（うせ）えとおるい。 一体、あなたは私を馬鹿にしているのか。 Really, are you making fun of me?
		So much, really	後（くし）ぬあばあや　あんすか、歌上手（うたじょうじい）やんなあ。 後隣りのあ姉さんはそんなに、歌が上手なのか。 Is the lady next door really good at singing?
		Why	何（ぬう）んち、父（すう）や　行かんが。 何故、父は行かないか。 Why doesn't father want to go?
rowspan=5 Template:Vert header			Completely, at all	ちゃっさ、あさがちしん、あちらん前（めー）あがちんならん。 いくら、焦っても、一向に、前に進むことも出来ない。 No matter how much we hurry, we cannot make any progress at all.
		Definitely	うぬ石ー童（わらび）のーじょーい、持（む）っちいゆさん。 この石は子供は絶対、持てない。 This rock, the child definitely cannot hold.
		Go too far	ちゃっさん、遊（あし）ばんしえーまし。 度を超して、遊ばない方が良い。 You should not go too far when you're playing.
		At all	どぅく、忙（いちゅな）さぬ、いふぃん、ゆくららん。 あまりにも、忙しくて、少しも、休めない。 I'm so busy I cannot rest at all.
		Cannot do anything	じかじん　聞（ち）かんくとぅ、如何（ちゃー）ん、ならん。 言うことも聞かないから、どうすることも出来ない。 They don't listen, so I cannot do anything.
rowspan=3 Template:Vert header			Really, truly	くぬ三線（さんしん）や　じゅんに、秀物（そうむん）やっさー。 この三味線は本当に、立派なものだな。 This is a truly amazing Sanshin.
		Definitely	我（わ）んねー必（かんな）じ、御所（うんじゅ）ぬ所（とぅくる）んかい　行ちゃん。 私は必ず、あなたの所に行く。 I will definitely go to your place.
		Such a thing	うん如（ぐと）ーりーや　当い前（めー）なかい、誰（たー）がん　なゆん。 そのような事は、当然、誰にでもできる。 Anybody can do such a thing.
rowspan=3 Template:Vert header			Recklessly	昔（んかし）ん人（ちょ）ーいちゃんだん、戦、そーたん。 昔の人はむやみに戦争をしていた。 People used to recklessly start wars in the past.
		On purpose	あんぐゎーなかい　見（ん）だりーんねーし、二歳（にーせー）やうったてぃ、どぅ返（げー）りゆたん。 女の子に見られようと、青年はわざと、転びよった。 The boy fell on purpose so that the girl would notice him.
		Already	客（ちゃこ）ーなー、去（は）いたん。 お客さんはもう、行ってしまった。 The guests are already gone.

Prenominal adjectives (連体詞)

Prenominal adjectives (連体詞)

Prenominal adjectives are classified the same as adverbs, except instead of modifying a declinable word, it modifies a substantive (体言; nouns and pronouns).
Okinawan	Japanese	English
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	good

Conjunctions (接続詞)

Conjunctions (接続詞)

Conjunctions are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech that connects words coming after to words coming before.
Okinawan	Japanese	English
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"For that reason"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Plainlist	"And then"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"So"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Plainlist	"But"

Interjections and exclamations (感動詞)

Interjections and exclamations (感動詞)

Interjections are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech, where it does not modify or connect anything, and other words may not come after it.
Okinawan	Japanese	English	Notes
		Oh / wow	驚きの気持ちを表す Expression of surprise
		Oh dear	Expression of dismay, concern, or worry
		Oh dear	失敗した時や驚いた時などに発する Expression of dismay, concern, or worry
		Yes	Honorific "yes"
Template:Plainlist		No	目上の人に対して用いる Honorific "no"
	Template:Plainlist	Hey
	Template:Plainlist	All right	Expression of pleasure, joy, or permission
	Template:Plainlist
		Oh dear	呆れ返った時などに発する語
	Template:Plainlist	Sure enough, As I expected

Verbs (動詞)

Verbs are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows movements. The conclusive form ends in .

Adjectives (形容詞)

Adjectives are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows property or state. The conclusive form ends in .

(存在動詞)

存在動詞 are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows existence or decision of a certain thing. attaches to a substantive.

Adjectival verbs (形容動詞)

Adjectival verbs are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows the state of existence of events. attaches to words that shows state.

Auxiliary verbs (助動詞)

Auxiliary verbs (助動詞)

Auxiliary verbs are classified as a dependent, conjugating part of speech that makes up the meanings of conjugated words. The conclusive form ends in .
Okinawan	Japanese	English	Example
Template:Plainlist	Template:Nihongo3
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
Template:Plainlist	Template:Nihongo3
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	want to
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	be able to
Template:Plainlist	Template:Plainlist

Particles (助詞)

Particles (助詞)

Case markers (格助詞)
Attaches to a substantive and marks the relationship between other words.
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
Template:Plainlist		Nominative case. Normally , but is used for pronouns and names.	犬（いん）ぬあびゆん。我（わあ）があびゆん。 犬が吠える。私が喋る。
		Genitive case; possessor.	豚（うわー）ぬ肉（しし）、食（か）みーねー、体（からだ）んかいましやん。 豚の肉を食べると体に良い。
Ø (Archaic: Template:Nihongo3)		Accusative case. Modern Okinawan does not use a direct object particle, like casual Japanese speech. "yu" exists mainly in old literary composition.
		Instrumental case; the means by which something is achieved.	バスっしTemplate:Nihongo3ちゃびら。 バスで行こう。 Let's go by bus.
			Template:Nihongo3さーにTemplate:Nihongo3Template:Nihongo3ちゃん。 沖縄語で手紙を書いた。 I wrote the letter in Okinawan.
・	・Template:Nihongo3	Dative case; indirect object, benefactor, goal of motion. 手段・方法	Template:Nihongo3んかいめんそーれー! 沖縄へようこそ！ Welcome to Okinawa!
・		Locative case; marks the location where an action takes place, usually pertaining to an animate subject. Derives from the participle form of the verb をぅん wun "to be, to exist".	くまをぅとーてぃTemplate:Nihongo3Template:Nihongo3さん。 ここで休みたい。 I want to rest (at) here.
		"as much as"; upper limit	Template:Nihongo3やかTemplate:Nihongo3ぬTemplate:Nihongo3やあらん。 彼より日本語が上手ではない。 My Japanese isn't as good as his.
		Ablative case; source, cause. 起点
		場所・位置
		場所
		所属等
ぬ→「〜している」「〜である」「〜い・しい」pp459.
		相手
		Quotative.
		時・場所等
Adverbial Particles (副助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
		"only; limit"	ローマTemplate:Nihongo3びけーんぬTemplate:Nihongo3。 ローマ字ばかりの書物。 A romaji only book.
		"up to, until, as far as"	くぬTemplate:Nihongo3あ、Template:Nihongo3までぃTemplate:Nihongo3ちゃびーん。Template:Nihongo3るまでぃTemplate:Nihongo3ちょーいびーん。 この電車は首里まで行く。帰るまで待つ。 This train goes as far as Shuri. I'll wait until you come home.
		"around, about, approximately"	Template:Nihongo3くれーかかゆん。 十分ぐらいかかる。 It will take about 10 minutes.
	等	as much as; upper limit.	うぬTemplate:Nihongo3ーTemplate:Nihongo3ゆるあたいTemplate:Nihongo3こーねーやびらん。 あの建物は思うぐらい高くないよ。 That building is not as tall as you imagine it to be.
	等
	等		Template:Nihongo3んじTemplate:Nihongo3しゃるうっぴTemplate:Nihongo3んでぃんTemplate:Nihongo3まびいん。 寝たいだけ寝ていいよ。 You can sleep as much as you want.
	等
	、
Binding particles (係助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
		Topic particle for long vowels, proper nouns, or names. For other nouns, the particle fuses with short vowels. a → ā, i → ē, u → ō, e → ē, o → ō, n → nō. Pronoun 我ん (wan?) (I) becomes topicalized as 我んねー (wannē?) instead of 我んのー (wannō?) or 我んや (wan'ya?), although the latter does appear in some musical or literary works.
		"Also"
		"even, also in"	Template:Nihongo3からやてぃんTemplate:Nihongo3ぬTemplate:Nihongo3ぬTemplate:Nihongo3いゆん。Template:Nihongo3やてぃんいんちりーんTemplate:Nihongo3をTemplate:Nihongo3すん。 万里の長城は宇宙からでも見れる。日本でも英語を習う The Great Wall of China can even be seen from space. Also in Japan, we study English.
	Template:Plainlist
	Template:Plainlist
	Template:Plainlist
Sentence-ending particles (終助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
		Final interrogatory particle
		Final interrogatory particle
		可否疑問
		強調疑問
		Final particle expressing 問いかけ・念押し
		軽い疑問
	Template:Plainlist
		軽く言う
		Prohibitive
		命令
		断定
		断定
Interjectory Particles (間投助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
	等
Template:Plainlist	Template:Plainlist
Template:Plainlist	Template:Plainlist
	等
	等
		意外、軽蔑
Conjunctive particles (接続助詞)

Others

Copula

Okinawan	Past tense	Japanese
Template:Plainlist	Template:Clarify span	Template:Nihongo3	−2	Template:Nihongo3	−3	Template:Nihongo3	−4	Template:Nihongo3	Template:Clarify span	−5	Template:Nihongo3

Question words (疑問詞)

Okinawan	Japanese	English
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"How much"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"When"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"Which"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"Who"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"Who" (plural)
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"How" (in what way)
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Plainlist	"How much"
Template:Plainlist	Template:Nihongo3	"How"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Plainlist	"What kind"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"What"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"Why"
Template:Nihongo3	Template:Nihongo3	"Where"

Syntax

The basic word order is subject–object–verb.

Okinawan is a marked nominative language (with the accusative being unmarked) that also shows minor active–stative variation in intransitive verbs relating to existence or emergence. In existence or emergence verbs, the subject may be optionally unmarked (except for pronouns and proper names, which must be marked with ga), and marked human subjects cannot use ga anymore, but rather always with the often-inanimate marker nu.

Example

Sample text in Standard Okinawan (Shuri-Naha dialect)

In Kanji

人間ー誰ん生まりやぎーなー自由やい、また、胴大切に思ゆる肝とぅ胴守らんでぃる肝ー、誰やてぃんゆぬ如授かとーるむんやん。人間ー元からいー矩ぬ備わとーくとぅ、互ーに兄弟やんでぃる考ーさーに事に当たらんだれーならん。(without ruby characters)

人間（にんじの）ー誰（たー）ん生（ん）まりやぎーなー自由（じゆ）やい、また、胴（どぅー）大切（てーしち）に思（うむ）ゆる肝（ちむ）とぅ胴（どぅー）守（まむ）らんでぃる肝（ちも）ー、誰（たー）やてぃんゆぬ如（ぐとぅ）授（さじゃ）かとーるむんやん。人間（にんじの）ー元（むーとぅ）からいー矩（かに）ぬ備（すな）わとーくとぅ、互（たげ）ーに兄弟（ちょーでー）やんでぃる考（かんげ）ーさーに事（くとぅ）に当（あ）たらんだれーならん。(with ruby characters)

Transliteration

Ninjinō tā n 'nmariyagīnā jiyu yai, mata, dū tēshichi ni umuyuru chimu tu dū mamurandiru chimō, tā yatin yunugutu sajakatōru mun yan. Ninjinō mūtu kara īka ni nu sunawatōkutu, tagē ni chōdēyandiru kangēsā ni kutu ni atarandarē naran. (UDHR Article 1)

See also

• Okinawan Japanese, the language most commonly spoken in Okinawa today

References

• Template:Dead link

External links

• 首里・那覇方言概説（首里・那覇方言音声データベース）
• うちなあぐち by Kiyoshi Fiza, an Okinawan language writer.
• JLect – Okinawa Language-Dialect Dictionary (definitions and meanings)