Latin grammar

Template:Latin grammar Latin is a heavily inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case; pronouns and adjectives (including participles) are inflected for number, case, and gender; and verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs.

Thus verbs can take any of over 100 different endings to express different meanings, for example "I rule", "I am ruled", "to rule", "to be ruled". Most verbal forms consist of a single word, but some tenses are formed from part of the verb "I am" added to a participle; for example, "I was led" or "he is going to lead".

Nouns belong to one of three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). The gender of the noun is shown by the last syllables of the adjectives, numbers and pronouns that refer to it: e.g. "this man", "this woman", "this war". There are also two numbers: singular ( "woman") and plural ( "women").

As well as having gender and number, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have different endings according to their function in the sentence, for example, "the king" (subject), but "the king" (object). These different endings are called "cases". Most nouns have five cases: nominative (subject or complement), accusative (object), genitive ("of"), dative ("to" or "for"), and ablative ("with", "in", "by" or "from"). Nouns for people (potential addressees) have the vocative (used for addressing someone). Some nouns for places have a seventh case, the locative; this is mostly found with the names of towns and cities, e.g. "in Rome". Adjectives must agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

When a noun or pronoun is used with a preposition, the noun must be in either the accusative or the ablative case, depending on the preposition. Thus "to, near" is always followed by an accusative case, but "from, out of" is always followed by an ablative. The preposition is followed by the ablative when it means "in, on", but by the accusative when it means "into, onto".

There is no definite or indefinite article in Latin, so that can mean "king", "a king", or "the king" according to context.

File:Priscianus della Robbia OPA Florence.jpg

Priscian, or the Grammar, marble cameo panel dated 1437–1439 from the bell tower of Florence, Italy, by Luca della Robbia. The scene is an allegory of grammar and, by implication, all of education. Note the opening door in the background and the unshod feet of the first pupil.

Latin word order tends to be subject–object–verb; however, other word orders are common. Different word orders are used to express different shades of emphasis. (See Latin word order.)

An adjective can come either before or after a noun, e.g. or "a good man", although some kinds of adjectives, such as adjectives of nationality ( "a Roman man") usually follow the noun.

Latin is a pro-drop language; that is, pronouns in the subject are usually omitted except for emphasis, so for example by itself means "you love" without the need to add the pronoun "you". Latin also exhibits verb framing in which the path of motion is encoded into the verb rather than shown by a separate word or phrase. For example, the Latin verb (a compound of Template:Wikt-lang and Template:Wikt-lang) means "he/she/it goes out".

In this article a line over a vowel (e.g. ē) indicates that it is long.

Nouns

Number

Most Latin nouns have two numbers, singular and plural: "king", "kings". A few nouns, called ("plural only"), although plural in form, have a singular meaning, e.g. "a camp", "a letter", "a wedding".

Gender

Nouns are divided into three genders, known as masculine, feminine, and neuter. The difference is shown in the pronouns and adjectives that refer to them, for example:

• "the king himself" (masculine)
• "the queen herself" (feminine)
• "the war itself" (neuter)

To a certain extent, the genders follow the meanings of the words (for example, winds are masculine, tree-names feminine):

• Masculine nouns include all those referring to males, such as "master", "boy", "god", but also some inanimate objects such as "garden", "army", "custom". Words in the 2nd declension ending in -us or -er are usually masculine.
• Feminine nouns include all those referring to females, such as "girl", "woman", "goddess", but also inanimate or abstract nouns such as "tree", "city", "kindness", "nation". Words in the 1st declension like ending in -a are usually feminine, with a few exceptions such as "poet". Also feminine are 3rd declension nouns ending in -tās and -tiō.
• Neuter nouns (apart from "a prostitute (of either gender)") all refer to things, such as "name", "body", "war", "poison".

Neuter nouns differ from masculine and feminine in two ways: (1) the plural nominative and accusative forms end in -a, e.g. "wars", "bodies"; (2) the subject (nominative) and object (accusative) cases are identical.

Case

Nouns in Latin have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for "king" is when it is the subject of a verb, but when it is the object:

• "the king sees" (nominative case)
• "(he) sees the king" (accusative case)

Further cases mean "of" (genitive case), "to/for" (dative case), and "with" (ablative case).

Nouns for people have a separate form used for addressing a person (vocative case). In most nouns for women and girls, the vocative is the same as the nominative.

Some nouns, such as the names of cities and small islands, and the word "home", have a seventh case called the locative, for example "in Rome" or "at home"; however, most nouns do not have this case.

The genitive, dative and ablative cases are called the "oblique" cases.

The order in which the cases are given in grammar books differs in different countries. In Britain and countries influenced by Britain, the order nominative, vocative, accusative is used as in the table below.Template:Sfn In the United States, in grammars such as Gildersleeve and Lodge's Latin Grammar (1895), the traditional order is used, with the genitive case in the second place and ablative last. In the popularly used Wheelock's Latin (1956, 7th edition 2011) and Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (1903), however, the vocative is placed at the end.

The following table shows the endings of a typical noun of the 3rd declension.Template:Sfn If Gildersleeve and Lodge's order is preferred, click on the symbol "GL" in the seventh column in the table below; for Wheelock's order click on "Wh":

Name of case	Use	sing.	meaning	plur.	meaning	Br	GL	Wh
Nominative	Subject		a king, the king		kings, the kings	1	1	1
Vocative	Addressing		o king!		o kings!	2	5	6
Accusative	Object, goal		a king, the king (object)		kings, the kings (object)	3	4	4
Genitive	of		of the king, of a king		of kings, of the kings	4	2	2
Dative	to, for		to the king		to kings, to the kings	5	3	3
Ablative	with, by, from, in		with the king		with the kings	6	6	5

Sometimes the same endings, e.g. and , are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Latin is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory could mean either "the kings lead" or "they lead the kings". In practice, however, such ambiguities are rare.

Declensions

1st and 2nd declensions

Latin nouns are divided into different groups according to the patterns of their case endings. These different groups are known as declensions. Nouns with -a in the nominative singular, like "girl" are known as 1st declension nouns, and so on.

The following table shows the declension of "girl" (1st declension), "lord, master" (2nd declension masculine), and "war" (2nd declension neuter):Template:Sfn

Case	feminine			masculine			neuter			Br	GL	Wh
	1 sg.	1 pl.		2 sg.	2 pl.		2n sg.	2n pl.
Nominative										1	1	1
Vocative										2	5	6
Accusative										3	4	4
Genitive										4	2	2
Dative										5	3	3
Ablative										6	6	5

1st declension nouns are usually feminine, except for a few referring to men, such as "farmer" or "poet". The nouns "daughter" and "goddess" have dative and ablative plural . The locative case ends in -ae, pl. -īs, e.g. "in Rome", "in Athens".Template:Sfn

2nd declension nouns in -us are usually masculine, but those referring to trees (e.g. "pine tree") and some place names (e.g. "Egypt") are feminine. A few 2nd declension nouns, such as "man" and "boy", lack endings in the nominative and vocative singular. In the 2nd declension, the genitive plural in some words is optionally -um, especially in poetry:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn or "of the gods", or "of men".

Neuter nouns such as "war" have -a in the nominative plural. In neuter nouns, the vocative and accusative are always the same as the nominative; the genitive, dative, and ablative are the same as the masculine. Most 2nd declension neuter nouns end in -um but "poison" and "crowd" end in -us.

3rd declension

Third declension nouns have various patterns of declension. Some decline like the following: "soldier", "city", "body":Template:Sfn

Case	masculine			feminine			neuter			Br	GL	Wh
	3 sg.	3 pl.		3 sg.	3 pl.		3n sg.	3n pl.
Nominative										1	1	1
Vocative										2	5	6
Accusative										3	4	4
Genitive										4	2	2
Dative										5	3	3
Ablative										6	6	5

There are some variations, however. A few, such as "force", have accusative singular -im and ablative singular -ī; some, like "fire", optionally have -ī instead of -e in the ablative singular. The genitive plural in some nouns is -um, in others -ium. (For details, see Latin declension.) 3rd declension nouns can be of any gender.

It is not usually possible to guess the genitive of a noun from the nominative: "leader" has genitive but "king" has ; "father" has genitive but "journey" has . For this reason the genitive is always given in dictionaries, and can be used to deduce the remaining cases.

4th and 5th declensions

4th and 5th declension nouns are less common. They decline like the following ( "hand", "knee", "day"):Template:Sfn

Case	feminine			neuter						Br	GL	Wh
	4 sg.	4 pl.		4 sg.	4 pl.		5 sg.	5 pl.
Nominative										1	1	1
Vocative										2	5	6
Accusative										3	4	4
Genitive										4	2	2
Dative										5	3	3
Ablative										6	6	5

4th declension nouns are usually masculine, but a few, such as "hand" and "old lady", are feminine. There are only four 4th declension neuter nouns.Template:Sfn

5th declension nouns (except for (m) "day") are usually feminine. "thing" is similar to except for a short e in the genitive and dative singular .

Other nouns

In addition to the above there are some irregularly declined nouns, mostly borrowed from Greek, such as the name "Aeneas" (1st declension masculine).Template:Sfn

The vocative is nearly always the same as the nominative, except in 1st and 2nd declension masculine singular words, such as "Aeneas!" and "master!/lord!". Some words, such as "god", have no separate vocative, however.

Use of cases

Nominative

The nominative case is used for the subject of an active or a passive verb:

= the king replied

= the king was killed

It is also used for the complement of a copula verb such as "he is" or "he became":Template:Sfn

= our king was Aeneas / Aeneas was our king

= he was made king / he became king

Vocative

The vocative case is used when addressing someone:

= do you order me, King Romulus, to strike a treaty?

Accusative

The accusative case is used for the object of a sentence:Template:Sfn

= they killed the king

It is also used as the subject of an infinitival clause dependent on a verb of speaking or the like:

= they believed that the king had been killed

It can be the complement of another word which is itself accusative:

= the people made Tullus their king

It can also be used with a place name to refer to the destination:

= he set out for Rome

The accusative is also used after various prepositions (especially those that imply motion towards):

= the Senate sent ambassadors to the king

= the consul returned to the city

Another use of the accusative is to give a length of time or distance:

= he reigned for five years

= five foot tall

Genitive

A genitive noun can represent possession or relationship:

= the king's daughter, daughter of the king

A genitive noun can stand for the object of mental processes such as "I pity" and "I forget":Template:Sfn

= I will never forget that night

A genitive noun attached to a verbal noun can stand for the object of the implied verb (called an "objective genitive"):

= my longing for the great man

A genitive noun can stand for the subject of the implied verb (called a "subjective" genitive):Template:Sfn

= Caesar's arrival

A frequent type of genitive is the partitive genitive, expressing the quantity of something:Template:Sfn

= enough time

Dative

The dative case means "to" or "for". It is frequently used with verbs of saying or giving:

= it was announced to the king

= he entrusted the money to the king

It can also be used with certain adjectives:

= he was very dear to the king

It is also used with certain verbs such as "I obey" or "I persuade":Template:Sfn

= he was obedient to (i.e. obeyed) the king

There are also various idiomatic uses, such as the dative of possession:

= what's your name?

Ablative

The ablative case can mean "with", especially when the noun it refers to is a thing rather than a person:Template:Sfn

= he stabbed himself with a sword

Often a phrase consisting of a noun plus participle in the ablative can express time or circumstance. This is known as an "ablative absolute":Template:Sfn

= with the kings driven out, i.e. after the kings were driven out

It is also frequently used with prepositions, especially those meaning "from", "with", "in", or "by":

= one from (i.e. one of) the kings

= with the kings

= by the kings, from the kings

= for/on behalf of the king

Another use is in expressions of time and place (except those that give the length of time or distance):

= at that time

= at this place

= in a few days

The ablative can also mean "from", especially with place names:Template:Sfn

= he set out from Rome

= he was dislodged from his position

Locative

The locative is a rare case used only with names of cities, small islands, and one or two other words such as domus "home". It means "at" or "in":Template:Sfn

= one of the two consuls remained in Rome

= he lived at our house for many years

Adjectives

Declension of adjectives

Adjectives, like nouns, have different endings for the different cases, singular and plural. They also differ as to gender, having different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter. (But masculine and neuter are identical in the genitive, dative, and ablative cases.)

Many adjectives belong to the 1st and 2nd declensions, declining in the same way as the nouns . An example is the adjective "good" shown below:

Case	m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.		m. pl	f. pl.	n. pl.		Br	GL	Wh
Nominative									1	1	1
Vocative									2	5	6
Accusative									3	4	4
Genitive									4	2	2
Dative									5	3	3
Ablative									6	6	5

Other adjectives belong to the 3rd declension, in which case the masculine and feminine are usually identical. Most 3rd declension adjectives are i-stems, and have ablative singular -ī and genitive plural -ium. An example is "huge" shown below:

Case	m/f. sg.	n. sg.		m/f. pl	n. pl.		Br	GL	Wh
Nominative							1	1	1
Vocative							2	5	6
Accusative							3	4	4
Genitive							4	2	2
Dative							5	3	3
Ablative							6	6	5

In a very few 3rd declension adjectives such as "sharp, keen", the feminine is different from the masculine, but only in the nominative and vocative singular.

A few adjectives (especially comparative adjectives) decline as consonant stems, and have ablative singular -e and genitive plural -um. An example is "better":

Case	m/f. sg.	n. sg.		m/f. pl	n. pl.		Br	GL	Wh
Nominative							1	1	1
Vocative							2	5	6
Accusative							3	4	4
Genitive							4	2	2
Dative							5	3	3
Ablative							6	6	5

Participles such as "leading" usually have -e in the ablative singular, but -ium in the genitive plural.Template:Sfn

There are no adjectives in the 4th or 5th declensions.

The adjectives "only" and "the whole of" decline like pronouns, with genitive singular -īus and dative singular -ī:

= of the whole of Greece (genitive case)

= to you alone (dative case)

Agreement of adjectives

Any adjective that describes or refers to a noun must be in the same case as the noun, as well as the same number and gender. Thus in the phrase below, where rēx is in the vocative singular case, bonus must be in the vocative singular also:

= o good king

Comparative and superlative adjectives

Adjectives have positive, comparative and superlative forms. Superlative adjectives are declined according to the first and second declension, but comparative adjectives are third declension.

When used in sentences, a comparative adjective can be used in several ways:

• Absolutely (with the meaning "rather" or "more than usual")
• With Template:Wikt-lang (Latin for "than")
• With an ablative meaning "than"
• With the genitive

Examples:

• : Cornelia is a brave girl.

The comparative adjective can be used absolutely (i.e. without any overt comparison) or with the comparison made explicit:

• : Cornelia is a rather brave girl.
• : Cornelia is a braver girl than Flavia. (Here quam is used, Flavia is in the nominative to match Cornelia)
• : Cornelia is braver than Flavia. (Here Flavia is in the ablative.)
• : Cornelia is the braver of the girls

Superlative adjectives are most frequently used absolutely, but they can also be used with the genitive "of all":

• : Cornelia is a very brave girl
• : Cornelia is the bravest girl of all.

Some comparative and superlative adjectives

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
long, tall	longer, taller	very long, longest
short	shorter	very short, shortest
beautiful	more beautiful	very beautiful, most beautiful
good	better	very good, best
easy	easier	very easy, easiest
great	greater	very great, greatest
bad	worse	very bad, worst
much	(+ genitive) more	very much, most
many	more	very many, most
small	smaller	very small, smallest
situated above	higher, previous	highest, last
() before	earlier	first

Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.

Pronouns

Pronouns are of two kinds, personal pronouns and 3rd person pronouns. Personal pronouns decline as follows.

Case	I	you sg.	himself/ herself		we	you pl.	themselves	Br	Am
Nominative			–				–	1	1
Accusative								3	4
Genitive								4	2
Dative								5	3
Ablative								6	6

can also be used reflexively ("I see myself" etc.).Template:Sfn

is frequently used in classical Latin for "I", but is never used in a singular sense.Template:Sfn

The genitive is used partitively ( "each one of us"), objectively ( "remembering us, mindful of us").Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

3rd person pronouns are those such as "this" and "(he) himself". The 3rd person pronouns can also be used adjectivally (except that "what?" when adjectival becomes ). The declension of these pronouns tends to be irregular. They generally have -īus in the genitive singular, and -ī in the dative singular. In a few pronouns ( "that", "that (of yours)", "it, that", "which", "anything; what?", "another", "something") the neuter singular ends in -d.

The declension of "that" is as follows:Template:Sfn

Case	m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.		m. pl	f. pl.	n. pl.	Br	Am
Nominative								1	1
Accusative								3	4
Genitive								4	2
Dative								5	3
Ablative								6	6

"he himself" is very similar, except that the neuter singular ends in -m instead of -d.

Other very common 3rd person pronouns are "this" and "he, she, it; that". Like other 3rd person pronouns, these can be used either independently ( "he") or adjectivally ( "that man"):

Case	m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.		m. pl	f. pl.	n. pl.	Br	Am
Nominative								1	1
Accusative								3	4
Genitive								4	2
Dative								5	3
Ablative								6	6

Before a vowel, and are pronounced as if spelled and . is pronounced as if spelled with a long first syllable.Template:Sfn

Case	m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.		m. pl	f. pl.	n. pl.	Br	Am
Nominative								1	1
Accusative								3	4
Genitive								4	2
Dative								5	3
Ablative								6	6

Also very common is the relative pronoun "who, which". The interrogative "who? what?" and indefinite "anyone, anything" are similar apart from the nominative singular:Template:Sfn

Case	m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.		m. pl	f. pl.	n. pl.	Br	Am
Nominative								1	1
Accusative								3	4
Genitive								4	2
Dative								5	3
Ablative								6	6

Like adjectives, pronouns must agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they refer to, as in the following, where hic is masculine agreeing with amor, but haec is feminine, agreeing with patria:

= this is my love, this my country

There is no indefinite article or definite article (the, a, an). Sometimes the weak determiner (English "that, this") can serve for the definite article:

"He persuaded the people that a fleet should be built with the money (with that money)"

Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs by indicating time, place or manner. Latin adverbs are indeclinable and invariable. Like adjectives, adverbs have positive, comparative and superlative forms.

The positive form of an adverb can often be formed from an adjective by appending the suffix -ē (2nd declension adjectives) or -(t)er (3rd declension adjectives). Thus the adjective , which means "bright", can be contrasted to the adverb , which means "brightly". The adverbial ending is used to form adverbs from 3rd declension adjectives, for example "quick", "quickly". Other endings such as -ō, -e, -tim are also found.

The comparative form of an adverb is the same as the neuter nominative singular form of a comparative adjective and usually ends in -ius. Instead of the adjective , which means "brighter", the adverb is , which means "more brightly".

The superlative adverb has the same base as the superlative adjective and always ends in a long -ē. Instead of the adjective , which mean "very bright" or "brightest", the adverb is , which means "very brightly" or "most brightly".

Some comparative and superlative adverbsTemplate:Sfn

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
worthily	more worthily	very worthily, most worthily
bravely	more bravely	very bravely, most bravely
easily	more easily	very easily, most easily
well	better	very well, best
badly	worse	very badly, worst
greatly	more	very greatly, most, especially
a little	less	very little, least
much	more	very much, most
for a long time	for a longer time, any longer	for a very long time
often	more often	very often, most often

Prepositions

Prepositions

A prepositional phrase in Latin is made up of a preposition followed by a noun phrase in the accusative or ablative case. The preposition determines the case that is used, with some prepositions allowing different cases depending on the meaning. For example, Latin in takes the accusative case when it indicates motion (English "into") and the ablative case when it indicates position (English "on" or "inside"):

= "into the city" (accusative)

= "in the city" (ablative)

Most prepositions take one case only. For example, all those that mean "from", "by", or "with" take the ablative:

= "out of the city"

= "(away) from the city"

= "with Caesar"

Other prepositions take only the accusative:

= "outside the city"

= "to/near the city"

= "through(out) the city"

= "around the city"

Postpositions

In addition, there are a few postpositions. "as far as" usually follows an ablative, sometimes a genitive plural case:Template:Sfn

"as far as Taurus"

"as far as Cumae"

"towards" is usually combined with or :

"towards the Alps"

"for the sake of" follows a genitive:

"for the sake of (doing) honour"

The word "with" is usually a preposition, but with the personal pronouns "me, you sg., him/herself/themselves, us, you pl." it follows the pronoun and is joined to it in writing:

"with him"

"with me"

Both and "with whom" are found.

Prepositions and postpositions in Latin (extensive list)

Preposition	Case	Meaning, notes
Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	from; down from; at, in, on, (of time) after, since (source of action or event) by, of
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	without (archaic, cf. sine and praeter)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	towards, to, at
Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	towards, against (also an adverb)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	before (also an adverb)
Template:Wikt-lang	+acc	at, by, near, among; Template:Wikt-lang; before, in the presence of, in the writings of, in view of
Template:Wikt-lang	+ gen	for the sake of (normally after its noun; simply the abl. of causa)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	about, around, near;
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	around, near, about; regarding, concerning
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	(of place and time) near, close, round about
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	on, to this, the near side of, short of; before
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	on this side of (also an adverb)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc & + abl	without the knowledge of, unknown to (also an adverb). Its use with the ablative is rare. is a variant of this preposition.
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	against, opposite to, contrary to, otherwise, in return to, back
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	in person, face to face; publicly, openly
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	with
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	from, concerning, about; down from, out of
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	against, opposite; towards, with regard to (sometimes placed after the noun or pronoun)
Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	out of, from
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	outside of, beyond
Template:Wikt-lang, fīnī	+ gen	up to (ablative of fīnis). Can also be a postposition.Template:Sfn
Template:Wikt-lang	+ gen	for the sake of. Usually placed after the noun.Template:Sfn
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	into, onto, to; about, respecting; according to; against
	+ abl	in, among, at, on (space); during, at (time)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	below
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	between, among; during, while
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	within, inside; during; in less than
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	nearly; near, close to, just as. Can also follow the noun.Template:Sfn
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	in the direction of, to, towards; on account of, according to, because of, due to, for (the purpose of); against; facing
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	without concealment, openly, publicly, undisguisedly, plainly, unambiguously
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	Under one's government or command; In one's disposal or custody; At, with, about, concerning
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	through, by means of; during
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	behind; in the rear of
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	behind (of space); afterwards, after (of time)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	before, in front of, because of
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	besides, except; beyond; more than
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	for, on behalf of; before; in front, instead of; about; according to; as, like; as befitting
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	far, at a distance
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	near, nearby, (figuratively) towards, about (in time)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	near, close to, hard by; because of, on account of, for; (rare) through, by means of
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	next, along, according to
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	with
Template:Wikt-lang	+ abl	without
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	under, up to, up under, close to (of a motion); until, before, up to, about
	+ abl	(to) under, (to) beneath; near to, up to, towards; about, around (time)
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	under, underneath; following (in order or rank); in the reign of
	+ abl	underneath, (figuratively) below inferior
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	above, over, beyond; during
	+ abl	concerning, regarding, about
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	above, over, more than, before
Template:Wikt-lang	+ gen & + abl	(with genitive and ablative) right up to, as far as, just as far as; (with ablative, of a process) up to (a given stage of); (with genitive and ablative, of limitation) to the maximum extent of, within. Used as a postposition.Template:Sfn
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	across, beyond
Template:Wikt-lang, Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	towards (postposition, usually combined with or )Template:Sfn
Template:Wikt-lang	+ acc	beyond

Numerals and numbers

The first three numbers have masculine, feminine and neuter forms fully declined as follows:Template:Sfn

Declension	1 m	f	n		2 m	f	n		3 mf	n		Br	GL	Wh
Nominative												1	1	1
Vocative												2	5	6
Accusative												3	4	4
Genitive												4	2	2
Dative												5	3	3
Ablative												6	6	5

(one) can also be used in the plural, with plural-only nouns, e.g. "one camp", "one letter". For larger numbers plural-only nouns use special numerals: "two camps", "three camps". (See Latin numerals.)

The numbers (four) through (ten) are not declined:

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

The "tens" numbers are also not declined:

(20)

(30)

(40)

(50)

(60)

(70)

(80)

(90)

The numbers 11 to 17 are formed by affixation of the corresponding digit to the base , hence . The numbers 18 and 19 are formed by subtracting 2 and 1, respectively, from 20: and . For the numbers 21 to 27, the digits either follow or are added to 20 by the conjunction : or or etc. The numbers 28 and 29 are again formed by subtraction: and . Each group of ten numerals through 100 follows the patterns of the 20s but 98 is and 99 is rather than * and * respectively.

Compounds ending in 1 2 and 3 are the only ones to decline:

I saw 20 blackbirds =

I saw 22 blackbirds = (where changes to agree with )

The "hundreds" numbers are the following:

(indeclinable)

(200)

(300)

(400)

(500)

(600)

(700)

(800)

(900)

However, 1000 is , an indeclinable adjective, but multiples such as (2000) have as a neuter plural substantive followed by a partitive genitive:

I saw a thousand lions =

I saw three thousand lions =

Ordinal numbers are all adjectives with regular first- and second-declension endings. Most are built off of the stems of cardinal numbers (for example, (30th) from (30), (609th) for (609). However, "first" is , and "second" is (literally "following" the first; means "to follow").

Verbs

Persons of the verb

Each tense has endings corresponding to three persons in the singular, known as 1st person singular ("I"), 2nd person singular ("you sg."), 3rd person singular ("he, she, it"), and three in the plural, known as 1st person plural ("we"), 2nd person plural ("you pl."), and 3rd person plural ("they"). Unlike Ancient Greek, there is no dual number in the Latin verb.

1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg.	I you sg. he, she, it		I love you sg. love he, she, it loves
1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl.	we you pl. they		we love you pl. love they love

Unlike in Spanish, French, and other Romance languages, there are no respectful 2nd person forms in Latin grammar: the 2nd person singular is used even when addressing a person of high status. However, the 1st person plural is often used to mean "I".Template:Sfn

Gender

Most verbs do not show grammatical gender: the same ending is used whether the subject is "he", "she", or "it". However, when a verb is made periphrastically out of a participle and part of the verb "I am", the participle shows gender, for example:

• "he was sent"
• "she was sent"

Impersonal verbs, such as "it was reported", are neuter singular.

Voice

Latin verbs have two voices, active (e.g. "I lead") and passive (e.g. "I am led").

Active	(doing)		I lead, I am leading
Passive	(being done)		I am led, I am being led

In addition there are a few verbs (e.g. "I follow") which have the endings of passive verbs but with an active meaning, a relic of the older mediopassive voice. These verbs are known as deponent verbs.Template:Sfn Intransitive verbs such as "I am" usually have no passive voice. However, some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive voice, but only when impersonal, e.g. "(a battle) was fought", "they came" (literally, "it was come").

Mood

Latin verbs have three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative:Template:Sfn

Indicative	(actual)		he leads, he is leading
Subjunctive	(potential)		he may/would/should lead
Imperative	(command)		lead!

Ordinary statements such as "I lead" or "he came" are said to be in the indicative mood. The subjunctive mood (e.g. "he may lead, he would lead" or "he would have led") is used for potential or hypothetical statements, wishes, and also in reported speech and certain types of subordinate clause. The imperative mood (e.g. "lead!") is a command.

In addition Latin verbs have a number of non-finite forms, such as the infinitive and various participles.

Regular and irregular verbs

Most Latin verbs are regular and follow one of the five patterns below.Template:Sfn These are referred to as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugation, according to whether the infinitive ends in or .Template:Sfn (Verbs like are regarded as variations of the 3rd conjugation, with some forms like those of the 4th conjugation.)

Other verbs like "I am" are irregular and have their own pattern.Template:Sfn

REGULAR		I love	I see	I lead	I capture	I hear
Present tense active	I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they
Infinitive	to	(1)	(2)	(3)	(3)	(4)
		I am loved	I am seen	I am led	I am captured	I am heard
Present tense passive	I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they
Infinitive	to	(1)	(2)	(3)	(3)	(4)
IRREGULAR		I am	I am able	I bring	I want	I go
Present tense	I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they
Infinitive	to

Compound verbs such as "I am present", "I don't want", "I go back", etc., usually have the same endings as the simple verbs from which they are made.

Tenses

A 3rd conjugation example

Latin verbs have six basic tenses in the indicative mood. Three of these are based on the present stem (e.g. dūc-) and three on the perfect stem (e.g. dūx-).

In addition, there are four tenses in the subjunctive mood, and two in the imperative.

Further tenses can be made periphrastically by combining participles with the verbs "I am" or "I have", for example "I was going to lead" or "I have led".

The following table gives the various forms of a 3rd conjugation verb . As with other verbs, three different stems are needed to make the various tenses: in the three non-perfect tenses, in the three perfect tenses, and in the perfect participle and supine. The perfect and supine stems for any particular verb cannot always be predicted and usually have to be looked up in a dictionary.

INDICATIVE	Active		Passive
Present		I lead, I am leading you lead he/she/it leads we lead you pl. lead they lead		I am led, I am being led you are led he/she/it is led we are led you pl. are led they are led
Future		I will lead, I will be leading you will lead he/she/it will lead we will lead you pl. will lead they will lead		I will be led, I will be being led you will be led he/she/it will be led we will be led you pl. will be led they will be led
Imperfect		I was leading, used to lead you were leading he/she/it was leading we were leading you pl. were leading they were leading		I was being led, I used to be led you were being led he/she/it was being led we were being led you pl. were being led they were being led
Perfect		I led, I have led you led he/she/it led we led you pl. led they led		I was led, I have been led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led
Future Perfect		I will have led you will have led he/she/it will have led we will have led you pl. will have led they will have led		I will have been led you will have been led he will have been led we will have been led you pl. will have been led they will have been led
Pluperfect		I had led you had led he/she/it had led we had led you pl. had led they had led		I had been led you had been led he had been led we had been led you pl. had been led they had been led
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present		I may lead, I would lead you would lead he/she/it would lead we would lead you pl. would lead they would lead		I may be led, I would be led you would be led he/she/it would be led we would be led you pl. would be led they would be led
Imperfect		I might lead, should lead you might lead he/she/it might lead we might lead you pl. might lead they might lead		I might be led you might be led he/she/it might be led we might be led you pl. might be led they might be led
Perfect		I would have led, I led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would lead they would have led		I would have been led, I was led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led
Pluperfect		I would have led, I had led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would have led they would have led		I would have been led you would have been led he would have been led we would have been led you pl. would have been led they would have been led
IMPERATIVE
Present		lead! (sg.) lead! (pl.)	()	be led! be led! (pl.)
Future		lead! (sg.) lead! (pl.)
3rd person		he must lead they must lead
INFINITIVES
Present		to lead		to be led
Future		to be going to lead		to be going to be led
Perfect		to have led		to have been led
Periphrastic perfect		to have been going to lead
PARTICIPLES
Present		(while) leading (sg.) (while) leading (pl.)
Future		going to lead
Perfect				having been led
GERUNDIVE				(needing) to be led
GERUND		with a view to leading of leading by leading
SUPINE		(he goes) in order to lead (easy) to lead

A distinction between perfective aspect (I did) and imperfective aspect (I was doing) is found only in the past in Latin. In the present or future, the same tenses have both aspectual meanings.

Unlike in Ancient Greek or modern English, there is no distinction between perfect (I have done) and simple past (I did). The same tense, known in Latin grammar as the perfect tense, has both meanings.

The passive imperative is almost never used except in deponent verbs, e.g. "follow me!"

Variations

The different conjugations differ in some tenses. For example, in the future tense:

• 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs and have the endings (e.g. "I will love", "I will see", "I will go").
• 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs and and have the endings ( "I will lead", "I will hear").
• and have the endings ( "I will be", "I will be able")

In the imperfect indicative:

• Most verbs have the endings (e.g. )
• and have (e.g. "I was able")

They also differ in the present subjunctive:

• 1st conjugation verbs have the endings (e.g. "I may love")
• 2nd, 3rd, 4th conjugations have ( "I may see", "I may lead", "I may hear", "I may go")
• , , have ( "I may be", "I may be able", "I may wish")

The imperfect subjunctive of every verb looks like the infinitive + an ending:

• Regular:
• Irregular:

In the various perfect tenses, all verbs have regular endings. However, the stem to which the perfect endings are added cannot always be guessed, and so is given in dictionaries.

Word order

Latin allows a very flexible word order because of its inflectional syntax. Ordinary prose tended to follow the pattern of subject, direct object, indirect object, adverbial words or phrases, verb (with the proviso that when noun and verb make a compound, as "I attack / make an attack" the noun is generally placed close to the verb).Template:Sfn Any extra but subordinate verb, such as an infinitive, is placed before the main verb. Adjectives and participles usually directly follow nouns unless they are adjectives of beauty, size, quantity, goodness, or truth, in which case they usually precede the noun being modified. However, departures from these rules are frequent.

Relative clauses are commonly placed after the antecedent that the relative pronoun describes. Since grammatical function in a sentence is based not on word order but on inflection, the usual word order in Latin was often abandoned with no detriment to understanding but with various changes in emphasis.

While these patterns of word order were the most frequent in Classical Latin prose, they were frequently varied. The strongest surviving evidence suggests that the word order of colloquial Latin was mostly Subject-Object-Verb. That can be found in some very conservative Romance languages, such as Sardinian and Sicilian in which the verb is still often placed at the end of the sentence (see Vulgar Latin). On the other hand, subject-verb-object word order was probably also common in ancient Latin conversation, as it is prominent in the Romance languages, which evolved from Latin.Template:Sfn

In poetry, however, word order was often changed for the sake of the meter for which vowel quantity (short vowels vs. long vowels and diphthongs) and consonant clusters, not rhyme and word stress, governed the patterns. One must bear in mind that poets in the Roman world wrote primarily for the ear, not the eye; many premiered their work in recitation for an audience. Hence, variations in word order served a rhetorical as well as a metrical purpose; they certainly did not prevent understanding.

In Virgil's Eclogues, for example, he writes, : "Love conquers all, let us too yield to love!". The words (all), amor (love) and (to love) are thrown into relief by their unusual position in their respective phrases.

The ending of the common Roman name Mārcus is different in each of the following pairs of examples because of its grammatical usage in each pair. The ordering in the second sentence of each pair would be correct in Latin and clearly understood, whereas in English it is awkward, at best, and meaningless, at worst:

: Marcus hits Cornelia. (subject–verb–object)

: Marcus Cornelia hits. (subject–object–verb)

: Cornelia gave Marcus a gift. (subject–verb–indirect object–direct object)

: Cornelia (to) Marcus a gift gave. (subject–indirect object–direct object–verb)

See also

• Declension of Greek nouns in Latin
• Latin syntax
• Latin mnemonics
• Latin word order
• Latin numerals

External links

• New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett (free ebook) (1895, 3rd edition 1918)
• Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges (1903) (public domain book)
• "Textkit.com" Website containing links to useful resources for learners of Latin.
• Ablative Absolute from Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar
• Ablative Absolute by William Harris
• A Practical Grammar of the Latin Language; with Perpetual Exercises in Speaking and Writing: For the Use of Schools, Colleges, and Private Learners, by George J. Adler
• Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography