Tiberian Hebrew

File:Aleppo Codex Joshua 1 1.jpg

Closeup of Aleppo Codex, Joshua 1:1

Tiberian Hebrew is the canonical pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) committed to writing by Masoretic scholars living in the Jewish community of Tiberias in ancient Galilee Template:Circa under the Abbasid Caliphate. They wrote in the form of Tiberian vocalization, which employed diacritics added to the Hebrew letters: vowel signs and consonant diacritics (nequdot) and the so-called accents (two related systems of cantillation signs or te'amim). These together with the marginal notes masora magna and masora parva make up the Tiberian apparatus.

Although the written vowels and accents came into use in around 750 CE, the oral tradition that they reflect is many centuries older, with ancient roots.

Sources

File:Aleppo Codex (Deut).jpg

Page from Aleppo Codex, Deuteronomy

Today's Hebrew grammar books do not teach the Tiberian Hebrew that was described by the early grammarians. The prevailing view is that of David Qimḥi's system of dividing the graphic signs into "short" and "long" vowels. The values assigned to the Tiberian vowel signs reveals a Sephardi tradition of pronunciation (the dual quality of qameṣ () as , ; the pronunciation of simple shva () as ).

The phonology of Tiberian Hebrew can be gleaned from the collation of various sources:

• The Aleppo Codex of the Hebrew Bible and ancient manuscripts of the Tanakh cited in the margins of early codices, all of which preserve direct evidence in a graphic manner of the application of vocalization rules such as the widespread use of reduced vowels where one would expect simple shva, thus clarifying the color of the vowel pronounced under certain circumstances. Most striking is the use of reduced ḥireq in five words under a consonant that follows a guttural vocalized with regular ḥireq (as described by Israel Yeivin) as well as the anomalous use of the rafe over letters that do not belong to or .
• The explicit statements found in grammars of the 10th and the 11th centuries, including the Sēfer haq-Qoloṯ of Moshe ben Asher (published by N. Allony); the Sēfer Diqduqē haṭ-Ṭe'amim ( Grammar or Analysis of the Accents) of Aaron ben Moses ben Asher; the anonymous works entitled Horayaṯ haq-Qorē (G. Khan and Ilan Eldar attribute it to the Karaite Jew Aaron of Jerusalem); the Treatise on the Schwa (published by Kurt Levy from a genizah fragment in 1936), and Ma'mar haš-Šəwā (published from Genizah material by Allony); the works of medieval Sephardi grammarians, including Abraham ibn Ezra and Judah ben David Hayyuj. In the case of the latter two, it is evident that the chain of transmission is breaking down or that their interpretations are influenced by local tradition.
• Ancient manuscripts that preserve similar dialects of Hebrew or Jewish Palestinian Aramaic vocalized with Tiberian niqqud that reveal a phonetic spelling rather than a phonemic spelling. They include the so-called "pseudo-Ben Naphtali" or "Palestinian-Sephardi" vocalized manuscripts, which generally conform to the rules enumerated below, such as pronouncing sheva as before consonantal yod, as in .
• Other traditions include Palestinian vocalization and (to a lesser extent) Babylonian (Mesopotamian) vocalization. Each community (Palestinian, Tiberian, Babylonian) developed systems of notation for pronunciation in each dialect, some of which are common among the traditions.
• Karaite transcriptions of Biblical text using the Arabic alphabet but vocalized with Tiberian signs, especially important for syllable structure and vowel length, which is marked in Arabic by matres lectionis and the sign sukun.
• Various oral traditions, especially Karaite and Yemenite Hebrew, have both preserved old features that correspond to Tiberian tradition, such as the pronunciation of schwa according to its proximity to gutturals or yod.

Phonology

Consonants

Tiberian Hebrew had at least 23 consonantal phonemes, represented by 22 letters. The sin dot distinguishes between the two values of ש‎, with a dot on the left (שׂ‎) being pronounced the same as the letter Samekh. The letters בגדכפת‎ (begadkefat) had two values each: plosive and fricative.

Tiberian Hebrew consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental	Denti-alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
				plain	emphatic
Nasal		Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Stop	voiceless	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
	voiced	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link
Fricative	voiceless	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link)		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	voiced	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link			(Template:IPA link)		Template:IPA link
Approximant		Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

The following are the most salient characteristics of the Tiberian Hebrew consonantal pronunciation:

• Before the labial vowels () and shva (), the waw-conjunctive () was read as rather than (as is the case in some eastern reading traditionsTemplate:Which).
• The threefold pronunciation of resh . Even though there is no agreement as to how it was pronounced, the rules of distribution of such pronunciation is given in Horayaṯ haq-Qorē:
  1. "Normal" Resh pronounced thus (according to Eldar, as a uvular sound ) in all other instances (except for the circumstances described below):
  2. The "peculiar" resh before or after Lamed or Nun, any of the three being vocalized with simple sheva and resh after zayin , daleth , samekh , sin , taw , ṣade , ṭeth , any of them punctuated with simple sheva: , . Because of the proximity of a dental consonant, resh was pronounced as an alveolar trill, as it still is in Sephardi Hebrew.
  3. There is still another pronunciation, affected by the addition of a dagesh in the Resh in certain words in the Bible, which indicates it was doubled : . As can be seen, this pronunciation has to do with the progressive increase in length of this consonant (). It was preserved only by the population of Ma'azya (), which is in Tiberias.
• A possible threefold pronunciation of taw . There are three words in the Torah, Prophets, and Writings in which it is said that "the Taw is pronounced harder than usual". It is said that this pronunciation was halfway between the soft () and the hard taw ():

Vowels

File:Tiberian Hebrew vowel chart.svg

This vowel chart gives a general idea of the vowel space of Tiberian Hebrew. It is not meant to be a precise mapping of the tongue positions, which would be impossible to do anyway since there are no native speakers of Tiberian Hebrew.

File:Tiberian-vocalisation-david-fine.jpg

Figurines holding Tiberian vowel diacritics. Limestone and basalt artwork at the shore in Tiberias.

Tiberian Hebrew phonemic vowels

	Front	Back
Close
Close-mid
Open-mid
Open
Reduced	1

1. marginal

The vowel qualities have phonemic status: (Lev. 5:19) and 'guilty', 'when' and 'mother'. has phonemic value in final stressed position , but in other positions, it may reflect loss of the opposition : . By the Tiberian period, all short vowels in ultimately-stressed syllables had lengthened, making vowel length allophonic. Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (such as in , which was previously short).

The Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced (ultrashort, hatuf) vowels of which has questionable phonemicity. , under a non-guttural letter, was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural ( ) and as preceding , ( ). However, it was always pronounced as under gutturals: .

Stress

Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress ( 'they built' vs. 'in us'). Stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and rarely antepenultimate stress: 'into the tent'.

Phonotactics

As described above, vowel length is dependent on syllable structure. Open syllables must take long or ultrashort vowels; stressed closed syllables take long vowels; unstressed closed syllables take short vowels. Traditional Hebrew philology considers ultrashort vowels not to be syllable nuclei.

Orthography

letter	א‎	ב‎	ג‎	ד‎	ה‎	ו‎	ז‎	ח‎	ט‎	י‎	כ/ך‎	ל‎	מ/ם‎	נ/ן‎	ס‎	ע‎	פ/ף‎	צ/ץ‎	ק‎	ר‎	ש‎	ת‎
transliteration	ʾ	b, Template:Transliteration	g, Template:Transliteration	d, Template:Transliteration	h	w	z	Template:Transliteration	Template:Transliteration	y	k, Template:Transliteration	l	m	n	s	ʿ	p, f	Template:Transliteration	q	r	Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration	t, Template:Transliteration
pronunciation (Modern)	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink
pronunciation (Yemenite)	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink
pronunciation (Tiberian)	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink
pronunciation (Biblical)	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink	Template:IPAblink Template:IPAblink

niqqud with ב	בַ‎	בֶ‎	בֵ‎	בִ‎	בָ‎	בֹ‎	בֻ‎	בוּ‎
name	pathaḥ	seghol	ṣere	ḥireq	qamaṣ	ḥolam	qubuṣ	shuruq
pronunciation

niqqud with ב	בַא‎ בַה‎	בֶא‎ בֶה‎ בֶי‎	בֵא‎ בֵה‎ בֵי‎	בִי‎ בִא‎	בָא‎ בָה‎	בֹא‎ בֹה‎ בוֹ‎	בוּא‎ בוּה‎
name	pathaḥ male	seghol male	ṣere male	ḥireq male	qamaṣ male	ḥolam male	shuruq male
pronunciation

niqqud with א	אְ‎	אֲ‎	אֱ‎	אֳ‎
name	shwa	ḥaṭaf pathaḥ	ḥaṭaf seghol	ḥaṭaf qamaṣ
pronunciation

niqqud	בּ‎	בֿ‎	הּ‎	שׁ‎	שׂ‎
name	daghesh	rafe	mapiq	shin dot	sin dot
pronunciation	Gemination of a consonant , or the stop pronunciation of the בגדכפ״ת consonants	Fricative pronunciation of the בגדכפ״ת consonants (its use is optional)	, being the last letter of a word

The simple sheva sign changes its pronunciation depending on its position in the word (mobile/vocal or quiescent/zero) and its proximity to certain consonants.

In these examples, it has been preferred to show one in the Bible and represents each phenomenon in a graphic manner (a chateph vowel), but the rules still apply when there is only a simple sheva (depending on the manuscript or edition used).

When the simple sheva appears in any of the following positions, it is regarded as mobile (na):

• At the beginning of a word, which includes the sheva (originally the first of the word) following the attached particles bi-,ki-,li- and u- and preceded by metheg (the vertical line placed to the left of the vowel sign, which stands for either secondary stress or its lengthening). Examples: וּֽזֲהַב‎ Genesis 2:12; בִּֽסֲבָךְ‎ Psalms 74:5. But is not pronounced if there is no metheg; that is, they form a closed syllable.
• The sheva following these three vowels , except for known types of closed syllables (and preceded or not, by metheg). Examples: נֵֽלֲכָה־נָּא‎ Exodus 3:18; אֵ֣לֲכָה נָּא‎ Exodus 4:18.
• The second of two adjacent shevas, when both appear under different consonants. Examples: אֶכְתֲּבֶנּוּ‎ Jeremiah 31:33; וָאֶשְׁקֲלָה־לֹּו‎ Jeremiah 32:9 (except for at the end of a word, אָמַרְתְּ‎ ).
• The sheva under the first of two identical consonants, preceded by metheg. Examples: בְּחַֽצְצֹן‎ Gen. 14:7; צָֽלֲלוּ‎ Exodus: 15:10.
• The sheva under a consonant with dagesh forte or lene. Examples: סֻבֳּלוֹ‎ Isaiah 9:3; אֶשְׁתֳּלֶנּוּ‎ Ezekiel 17:23.
• The sheva under a consonant that expects gemination but is not so marked, for example, the one found under ר‎. And sometimes even מ‎ when preceded by the article. Examples: מְבָרֲכֶיךָ‎ Genesis 12:3; הַמֲדַבְּרִים‎ 2 Chronicles 33:18.
• In case a quiescent sheva was followed either by a guttural or yodh, it would turn into mobile according to the rules given below, if preceded by a metheg. Ancient manuscripts support that view. Examples: נִֽבֳהָל‎ Proverbs 28:22; שִֽׁבֲעַת‎ Job 1:3.
• Any sheva, if the sign metheg is attached to it, would change an ultrashort vowel to a short, or normal length vowel. For this, only ancient, reliable manuscripts can give us a clear picture, since, with time, later vocalizers added to the number of methegs found in the Bible.

The gutturals (אהח"ע‎), and yodh (י‎), affect the pronunciation of the sheva preceding them. The allophones of the phoneme follow these two rules:

• It would change its sound to imitate that of the following guttural. וּקֳהָת‎ Numbers 3:17; וְנִזְרֳעָה‎ Numbers 5:28.
• It would be pronounced as ḥireq before consonantal yodh. Examples: יִרְמִיָהוּ‎ Jeremiah 21:1; עִנִייָן‎ in Maimonides' autograph in his commentary to the Mishnah.

It must be said that even though there are no special signs apart to denote the full range of furtive vowels, the remaining four () are represented by simple sheva (ḥaṭaf ḥiriq (אְִ‎) in the Aleppo Codex is a scribal oddity and certainly not regular in Hebrew manuscripts with Tiberian vocalization).

All other cases should be treated as zero vowel (quiescent, nah), including the double final sheva (double initial sheva does not exist in this Hebrew dialect), and the sheva in the words שְׁתַּיִם‎ and שְׁנַיִם‎ , read by the Tiberian Masoretes as אֶשְׁתַּיִם‎ and אֶשְׁנַיִם‎ respectively. This last case has similarities with phenomena occurring in the Samaritan pronunciation and the Phoenician language.

Depending on the school of pronunciation (and relying on musical grounds, perhaps), the metheg sign served to change some closed syllables into open ones, and therefore, changing the vowel from short to long, and the quiescent sheva, into a mobile one.

That is referenced specifically by medieval grammarians:

If one argues that the dalet of 'Mordecai' (and other letters in other words) has hatef qames, tell him, 'but this sign is only a device used by some scribes to warn that the consonants should be pronounced fully, and not slurred over'.

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The names of the vowel diacritics are iconic and show some variation:

The names of the vowels are mostly taken from the form and action of the mouth in producing the various sounds, as פַּתַ֫ח opening; צֵרֵ֫י a wide parting (of the mouth), (also שֶׁ֫בֶר) breaking, parting (cf. the Arab, kasr); חִ֫ירֶק (also חִרֶק) narrow opening; ח֫וֹלֶם closing, according to others fullness, i.e. of the mouth (also מְלֹא פּוּם fullness of the mouth). קָ֫מֶץ also denotes a slighter, as שׁוּרֶק and קִבּוּץ (also קבוץ פּוּם) a firmer, compression or contraction of the mouth. Segôl (סְגוֹל bunch of grapes) takes its name from its form. So שָׁלֹשׁ נְקֻדּוֹת (three points) is another name for Qibbúṣ. Moreover the names were mostly so formed (but only later), that the sound of each vowel is heard in the first syllable (קָמֶץ for קֹמֶץ, פַּתַח for פֶּתַח, צֵרִי for צְרִי); in order to carry this out consistently some even write Sägôl, Qomeṣ-ḥatûf, Qûbbûṣ.

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