Somali language

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Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Script error: No such module "Infobox".Template:Template otherTemplate:Main other Somali (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell;Template:Refn[1] Latin script: Script error: No such module "Lang".; Wadaad: Template:Script/Arabic; Osmanya: 𐒖𐒍 π’ˆπ’π’‘π’›π’π’˜ Script error: No such module "IPA".)[2] is an Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic branch. It is spoken primarily in Greater Somalia, and by the Somali diaspora as a mother tongue. Somali is an official language in both Somalia and Ethiopia,[3] and serves as a national language in Djibouti, it is also a recognised minority language in Kenya. The Somali language is officially written with the Latin alphabet although the Arabic script and several Somali scripts like Osmanya, Kaddare and the Borama script are informally used.[4][5]

Classification

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Somali is classified within the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, specifically, Lowland East Cushitic in addition to Afar and Saho.[6] Somali is the best-documented of the Cushitic languages,[7] with academic studies of the language dating back to the late 19th century.[8]

Geographic distribution of Somali

The Somali language is spoken in Somali inhabited areas of Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Yemen and by members of the Somali diaspora. It is also spoken as an adoptive language by a few ethnic minority groups and individuals in Somali majority regions.

Somali is the most widely spoken Cushitic language in the region followed by Oromo and Afar.[9]

As of 2021, there are approximately 24 million speakers of Somali, spread in Greater Somalia of which around 17 million reside in Somalia.[10][11] The language is spoken by an estimated 95% of the country's inhabitants,[8] and also by a majority of the population in Djibouti.[7]

Following the start of the Somali Civil War in the early 1990s, the Somali-speaking diaspora increased in size, with newer Somali speech communities forming in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.[12]

Official status

Template:Culture of Somalia Constitutionally, Somali and Arabic are the two official languages of Somalia.[13] Somali has been an official national language since January 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) declared it the Somali Democratic Republic's primary language of administration and education. Somali was thereafter established as the main language of academic instruction in forms 1 through 4, following preparatory work by the government-appointed Somali Language Committee. It later expanded to include all 12 forms in 1979. In 1972, the SRC adopted a Latin orthography as the official national alphabet over several other writing scripts that were then in use. Concurrently, the Italian-language daily newspaper Stella d'Ottobre ("The October Star") was nationalized, renamed to Xiddigta Oktoobar, and began publishing in Somali.[14] The state-run Radio Mogadishu has also broadcast in Somali since 1951.[15][16] Additionally, other regional public networks like Somaliland National TVand Puntland TV and Radio and, as well as Eastern Television Network and Horn Cable Television, among other private broadcasters, air programs in Somali.[17]

Somali is recognized as an official working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia.[18] Although it is not an official language of Djibouti, it constitutes a major national language there. Somali is used in television and radio broadcasts,[8][19] with the government-operated Radio Djibouti transmitting programs in the language from 1943 onwards.[20]

The Kenya Broadcasting Corporation also broadcasts in the Somali language in its Iftin FM Programmes. The language is spoken in the Somali territories within North Eastern Kenya, namely Wajir County, Garissa County and Mandera County.[21][22]

The Somali language is regulated by the Regional Somali Language Academy, an intergovernmental institution established in June 2013 in Djibouti City by the governments of Djibouti, Somalia and Ethiopia. It is officially mandated with preserving the Somali language.[23]

As of 2025, Somali, Afar and Oromo are the only 3 Cushitic languages available on Google Translate.[24]

Varieties

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File:Distribution-of-Somali-dialectals.png
Distribution of Somali dialectal groups in the Horn of Africa

The Somali languages are broadly divided into three main groups: Northern Somali, Benadir and Maay.[25] Northern Somali forms the basis for Standard Somali.[25] It is spoken by the majority of the Somali population[26] with its speech area stretching from Djibouti, and the Somali Region of Ethiopia to the Northern Frontier District.[27] This widespread modern distribution is a result of a long series of southward population movements over the past ten centuries from the Gulf of Aden littoral.[28] Lamberti subdivides Northern Somali into three dialects: Northern Somali proper (spoken in the northwest; he describes this dialect as Northern Somali in the proper sense), the Darod group (spoken in the northeast and along the eastern Ethiopia frontier; greatest number of speakers overall), and the Lower Juba group (spoken by northern Somali settlers in the southern riverine areas).[29]

File:Shaxmednuradc1.ogg
Speech sample in Standard Somali (an Islamic discourse containing many Arabic loanwords)

Benadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the central Indian Ocean seaboard, including Mogadishu. It forms a relatively smaller group. The dialect is fairly mutually intelligible with Northern Somali.[30]

File:Northern Somali Dialects.png
Northern Somali (Nsom) dialect subgroups

Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southern regions of Somalia.[31] Its speech area extends from the southwestern border with Ethiopia to a region close to the coastal strip between Mogadishu and Kismayo, including the city of Baidoa.[30] Maay is partially mutually comprehensible with Northern Somali,[32] with the degree of divergence comparable to that between Spanish and Portuguese.[33] Despite these linguistic differences, Somali speakers collectively view themselves as speaking a common language.[34] It is also not generally used in education or media. However, Maay speakers often use Standard Somali as a lingua franca,[30] which is learned via mass communications, internal migration and urbanization.[35]

Phonology

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Vowels

Different analyses have proposed somewhat different vowel inventories and features for Somali, depending on the set of speakers whose dialects are studied. Up to four features may be phonologically distinctive: height, backness, tongue root, and length.

Saeed (1982) and Orwin (1994) both propose systems with five core vowels, but only Orwin's system makes a tongue root distinction.[36]Template:Rp[37]Template:Rp Gabbard (2010) proposes a system with six core vowels, with a tongue root distinction, but only on front vowels.[38]

Vowels (based on Orwin's analysis)[37]
Front Central Back
High Template:IPA linkTemplate:Efn Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA linkTemplate:Efn Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Mid Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Low Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme

Orwin argues that, in addition to the vowels listed above, each of these five vowels has a fronted (advanced tongue root) variant, based on the existence of minimal pairs such as:

  • duul ("fly!") vs. du̘u̘l ("attack!")
  • keen ("bring!") vs. ke̘e̘n ("he brought")

Gabbard claims that only the front vowels (Template:IPA slink and Template:IPA slink) have advanced variants, though his system includes a sixth vowel, Template:IPA slink. Both Orwin and Gabbard agree that the precise phonetic and phonological difference between the advanced and retracted tongue root vowels are unclear.[37]Template:Rp[38]

Consonants

Somali has 22 consonant phonemes.[39]

Somali consonant phonemes[40][41][42]
Bilabial Coronal Post-
alveolar 		Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal 		Glottal
Nasal Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Plosive voicelessScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
voicedScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Template:IPA link † Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link † Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link †Template:Grapheme
Affricate Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Fricative voicelessScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme (Template:IPA link)Template:Efn Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
voiced Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
Trill Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme (Template:IPA link)Template:Efn
Approximant Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme Template:IPA link Template:Grapheme
<templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>^† The consonants Template:IPA link often lenite to Template:IPA link intervocalically.[43]

The retroflex plosive Script error: No such module "IPA". may have an implosive quality for some Somali Bantu speakers, and intervocalically it can be realized as the flap Script error: No such module "IPA".. Some speakers produce Script error: No such module "IPA". with epiglottal trilling as /Template:IPA link/ in retrospect.[44] Script error: No such module "IPA". is often epiglottalized.[45]

The letter Template:Grapheme is pronounced as a retroflex flap Template:IPAblink when it occurs intervocalically, as in qudhaanjo.

The letter Template:Grapheme, found in Arabic loanwords, is rarely pronounced as a velar fricative. It is more often conflated with Template:IPAslink, which is pronounced Template:IPAblink in syllabic coda position.

Tone

Pitch is phonemic in Somali, but it is debated whether Somali is a pitch accent, or it is a tonal language.[46] Andrzejewski (1954) posits that Somali is a tonal language,[47] whereas Banti (1988) suggests that it is a pitch system.

Phonotactics

The syllable structure of Somali is (C)V(C).

Root morphemes usually have a mono- or di-syllabic structure.

Clusters of two consonants do not occur word-initially or word-finally, i.e., they only occur at syllable boundaries. The following consonants can be geminate: /b/, /d/, /Ι–/, /Ι‘/, /Ι’/, /m/, /n/, /r/ and /l/. The following cannot be geminate: /t/, /k/ and the fricatives.

Two vowels cannot occur together at syllable boundaries. Epenthetic consonants, e.g. [j] and [Κ”], are therefore inserted.

Grammar

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Somali personal pronouns
Person Emphatic Clitic (short)
Subject Object
1 singular aniga aan i
plural inclusiveScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". innaga aynu ina
exclusiveScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". annaga aannu na
2 singular adiga aad ku
plural idinka aydin idin
3 singular masculineScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". isaga uu --
feminineScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". iyada ay --
plural iyaga ay --

Morphology

Somali is an agglutinative language, and also shows properties of inflection. Affixes mark many grammatical meanings, including aspect, tense and case.[48]

Somali has an old prefixal verbal inflection restricted to four common verbs, with all other verbs undergoing inflection by more obvious suffixation. This general pattern is similar to the stem alternation that typifies Cairene Arabic.[49]

Somali has two sets of pronouns: independent (substantive, emphatic) pronouns and clitic (verbal) pronouns.[50] The independent pronouns behave grammatically as nouns, and normally occur with the suffixed article -ka/-ta (e.g. adiga, "you").[50] This article may be omitted after a conjunction or focus word. For example, adna meaning "and you..." (from adi-na).[50] Clitic pronouns are attached to the verb and do not take nominal morphology.[51] Somali marks clusivity in the first person plural pronouns; this is also found in a number of other East Cushitic languages, such as Rendille and Dhaasanac.[52]

As in various other Afro-Asiatic languages, Somali is characterized by polarity of gender, whereby plural nouns usually take the opposite gender agreement of their singular forms.[53][54] For example, the plural of the masculine noun dibi ("bull") is formed by converting it into feminine dibi.[53] Somali is unusual among the world's languages in that the object is unmarked for case while the subject is marked, though this feature is found in other Cushitic languages such as Oromo.[55]

Syntax

Somali is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language.[12] It is largely head final, with postpositions and with obliques preceding verbs.[56] These are common features of the Cushitic and Semitic Afroasiatic languages spoken in the Horn region (e.g. Amharic).[57] However, Somali noun phrases are head-initial, whereby the noun precedes its modifying adjective.[56][58] This pattern of general head-finality with head-initial noun phrases is also found in other Cushitic languages (e.g. Oromo), but not generally in Ethiopian Semitic languages.[56][59]

Somali uses three focus markers: baa, ayaa and waxa(a), which generally mark new information or contrastive emphasis.[60] Baa and ayaa require the focused element to occur preverbally, while waxa(a) may be used following the verb.[61]

Vocabulary

File:Somlangbooks.jpg
Somali language books on display.

Somali loanwords can be divided into those derived from other Afroasiatic languages (mainly Arabic), and those of Indo-European extraction (mainly Italian).[62]

Somali's main lexical borrowings come from Arabic, and are estimated to constitute about 20% of the language's vocabulary.[63] This is a legacy of the Somali people's extensive social, cultural, commercial and religious links and contacts with nearby populations in the Arabian peninsula. Arabic loanwords are most commonly used in religious, administrative and education-related speech (e.g. aamiin for "faith in God"), though they are also present in other areas (e.g. kubbad-da, "ball").[62] Soravia (1994) noted a total of 1,436 Arabic loanwords in Agostini a.o. 1985,[64] a prominent 40,000-entry Somali dictionary.[65] Most of the terms consisted of commonly used nouns. These lexical borrowings may have been more extensive in the past since a few words that Zaborski (1967:122) observed in the older literature were absent in Agostini's later work.[64] In addition, the majority of personal names are derived from Arabic.[66]

The Somali language also contains a few Indo-European loanwords that were retained from the colonial period.[14] Most of these lexical borrowings come from English and Italian and are used to describe modern concepts (e.g. telefishen-ka, "the television"; raadia-ha, "the radio").[67] There are 300 loan words from Italian, such as garawati for "tie" (from Italian Script error: No such module "Lang".), dimuqraadi from Script error: No such module "Lang". (democratic), mikroskoob from Script error: No such module "Lang"., and so on.

Additionally, Somali contains lexical terms from Persian, Urdu and Hindi that were acquired through historical trade with communities in the Near East and South Asia (e.g. khiyaar "cucumber" from Template:Langx khiyār ).[67] Other loan words have also displaced their native synonyms in some dialects (e.g. jabaati "a type of flat bread" from Hindi: ΰ€šΰ€ͺΰ€Ύΰ€€ΰ₯€ chapāti displacing sabaayad). Some of these words were also borrowed indirectly via Arabic.[67][68]

As noted by Somali historian Mohammed Nuuh Ali, the Somali language also incorporates various loanwords from Old Harari.[69]

As part of a broader governmental effort of linguistic purism in the Somali language, the past few decades have seen a push in Somalia toward replacement of loanwords in general with their Somali equivalents or neologisms. To this end, the Supreme Revolutionary Council during its tenure officially prohibited the borrowing and use of English and Italian terms.[14]

Writing system

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File:Ciismaniya.jpg
The Osmanya writing script for Somali.
File:10437 2015 9184 Fig8 HTML.webp
ShalΓ‘w Sabaean writing, Sanaag (Photo: by Sada Mire, 2007). Inscription dates between 900 BCE and 300 CE.

Archaeological excavations and research in Somalia uncovered ancient inscriptions in a distinct writing system.[70] In an 1878 report to the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain, scientist Johann Maria Hildebrandt noted upon visiting the area that "we know from ancient authors that these districts, at present so desert, were formerly populous and civilised[...] I also discovered ancient ruins and rock-inscriptions both in pictures and characters[...] These have hitherto not been deciphered."[71] According to the 1974 report for Ministry of Information and National Guidance, this script represents the earliest written attestation of Somali.[70]

Much more recently, Somali archaeologist Sada Mire has published ancient inscriptions found throughout Somalia. As for much of Somali linguistic history the language was not widely used for literature, Dr. Mire's publications however prove that writing as a technology was not foreign nor scarce in the region.[72] These pieces of writing are from the Semitic Himyarite and Sabaean languages that were largely spoken in what is modern day Yemen β€”"there is an extensive and ancient relationship between the people and cultures of both sides of the Red Sea coast" Mire posits. Yet, while many more such ancient inscriptions are yet to be found or analyzed, many have been "bulldozed by developers, as the Ministry of Tourism could not buy the land or stop the destruction".[72]

Besides Ahmed's Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing the Somali language include the long-established Arabic script and Wadaad's writing.[73] According to BogumiΕ‚ Andrzejewski, this usage was limited to Somali clerics and their associates, as sheikhs preferred to write in the liturgical Arabic language. Various such historical manuscripts in Somali nonetheless exist, which mainly consist of Islamic poems (qasidas), recitations and chants.[74] Among these texts are the Somali poems by Sheikh Uways and Sheikh Ismaaciil Faarah. The rest of the existing historical literature in Somali principally consists of translations of documents from Arabic.[75]

Since then a number of writing systems have been used for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, the Somali Latin alphabet, officially adopted in 1972, is the most widely used and recognised as official orthography of the state.[76] The script was developed by a number of leading scholars of Somali, including Musa Haji Ismail Galal, B. W. Andrzejewski and Shire Jama Ahmed specifically for transcribing the Somali language, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except p, v and z.[77][78] There are no diacritics or other special characters except the use of the apostrophe for the glottal stop, which does not occur word-initially. There are three consonant digraphs: DH, KH and SH. Tone is not marked, and front and back vowels are not distinguished.

Writing systems developed in the twentieth century include the Osmanya, Borama and Kaddare alphabets, which were invented by Osman Yusuf Kenadid, Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur and Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare, respectively.[79]

Resources

Several digital collections of texts in the Somali language have been developed in recent decades. These corpora include Kaydka Af Soomaaliga (KAF), Bangiga Af Soomaaliga, the Somali Web Corpus (soWaC),[80] a Somali read-speech corpus, Asaas (Beginning in Somali) and a Web-Based Somali Language Model and text Corpus called Wargeys (Newspaper in Somali).[81]

Numbers and calendrical terms

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Numbers

English Somali
Latin Osmanya #
Zero Eber 𐒗𐒁𐒗𐒇 𐒠
One kow 𐒏𐒙𐒓 𐒑
Two laba 𐒐𐒖𐒁𐒖 𐒒
Three saddex π’ˆπ’–π’†π’†π’—π’„ 𐒣
Four afar 𐒖𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒀
Five shan 𐒉𐒖𐒒 π’₯
Six lix π’π’˜π’„ 𐒦
Seven toddoba 𐒂𐒙𐒆𐒆𐒙𐒁𐒖 𐒧
Eight siddeed π’ˆπ’˜π’†π’†π’œπ’† 𐒨
Nine sagaal π’ˆπ’–π’Œπ’›π’ 𐒩
Ten toban 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒠
English Somali
Latin Osmanya #
Eleven kow iyo toban 𐒏𐒙𐒓 π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒑
Twelve laba iyo toban 𐒐𐒖𐒁𐒖 π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒒
Thirteen saddex iyo toban π’ˆπ’–π’†π’†π’—π’„ π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒣
Fourteen afar iyo toban 𐒖𐒍𐒖𐒇 π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒀
Fifteen shan iyo toban 𐒉𐒖𐒒 π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑π’₯
Sixteen lix iyo toban π’π’˜π’„ π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒦
Seventeen toddoba iyo toban 𐒂𐒙𐒆𐒆𐒙𐒁𐒖 π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒧
Eighteen sideed iyo toban π’ˆπ’˜π’†π’œπ’† π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒨
Nineteen sagaal iyo toban π’ˆπ’–π’Œπ’›π’ π’˜π’•π’™ 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒩
Twenty labaatan 𐒐𐒖𐒁𐒛𐒂𐒖𐒒 𐒒𐒠

For all numbers between 11 kow iyo toban and 99 sagaashal iyo sagaal, it is equally correct to switch the placement of the numbers, although larger numbers is some dialects prefer to place the 10s numeral first. For example 25 may both be written as labaatan iyo shan and shan iyo labaatan (lit. Twenty and Five & Five and Twenty).

Although neither the Latin nor Osmanya scripts accommodate this numerical switching.

Multiples of 10

English Somali
Latin Osmanya #
Ten toban 𐒂𐒙𐒁𐒖𐒒 𐒑𐒠
Twenty labaatan 𐒐𐒖𐒁𐒛𐒂𐒖𐒒 𐒒𐒠
Thirty soddon π’ˆπ’™π’†π’†π’™π’’ 𐒣𐒠
Forty afartan 𐒖𐒍𐒖𐒇𐒂𐒖𐒒 𐒀𐒠
Fifty konton 𐒏𐒙𐒒𐒂𐒙𐒒 π’₯𐒠
Sixty lixdan π’π’˜π’„π’†π’–π’’ 𐒦𐒠
Seventy todobaatan 𐒂𐒙𐒆𐒙𐒁𐒛𐒂𐒖𐒒 𐒧𐒠
Eighty sideetan π’ˆπ’˜π’†π’œπ’‚π’–π’’ 𐒨𐒠
Ninety sagaashan π’ˆπ’–π’Œπ’›π’‰π’–π’’ 𐒩𐒠

Names of large numbers

English Somali
Latin Osmanya #*
One hundred boqol π’π’™π’Žπ’™π’ 𐒑𐒠𐒠
One thousand kun π’π’šπ’’ 𐒑,𐒠𐒠𐒠
One million milyan π’‘π’˜π’π’•π’–π’’ 𐒑,𐒠𐒠𐒠,𐒠𐒠𐒠
One billion bilyan π’π’˜π’π’•π’–π’’ 𐒑,𐒠𐒠𐒠,𐒠𐒠𐒠,𐒠𐒠𐒠

*the commas in the Osmanya number chart are added for clarity

Days of the week

English Somali
Latin Osmanya
Sunday Axad 𐒖𐒄𐒖𐒆
Monday Isniin π’˜π’ˆπ’’π’•π’’
Tuesday Salaasa/Talaado π’ˆπ’–π’π’›π’ˆπ’–/𐒂𐒖𐒐𐒛𐒆𐒙
Wednesday Arbaca/Arbaco 𐒖𐒇𐒁𐒖𐒋𐒛/𐒖𐒇𐒁𐒖𐒋𐒙
Thursday Khamiis π’…π’–π’‘π’•π’ˆ
Friday Jimce/Jimco π’ƒπ’˜π’‘π’‹π’™
Saturday Sabti π’ˆπ’–π’π’‚π’˜

Months of the year

English Somali
Latin Osmanya
January Janaayo π’ƒπ’œπ’’π’šπ’“π’–π’‡π’˜
February Febraayo π’π’›π’π’‡π’šπ’“π’–π’‡π’˜
March Maarso 𐒑𐒛𐒃
April Abriil 𐒖𐒁𐒇𐒕𐒐
May Maajo 𐒑𐒖𐒕
June Juun 𐒃𐒓𐒒
July Luuliyo 𐒃𐒓𐒐𐒛𐒕
August Agoosto π’π’Œπ’–π’ˆ
September Sebteembar π’ˆπ’˜π’π’‚π’–π’‘π’π’–π’‡
October Oktoobar 𐒙𐒏𐒂𐒝𐒁𐒖𐒇
November Nofeembar 𐒒𐒝𐒍𐒖𐒑𐒁𐒖𐒇
December Diseembar π’†π’•π’ˆπ’‘π’π’–π’‡

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

Template:Reflist

Sources

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Further reading

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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Lewis, I.M. (1958), The Gadabuursi Somali Script, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 21, pp. 134–156.
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b Template:Harvcoltxt
  8. ↑ a b c Template:Harvcoltxt
  9. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ a b c Template:Harvcoltxt
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Dead link
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Archived at GhostarchiveTemplate:Cbignore and the Wayback MachineTemplate:Cbignore: Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Cbignore
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ a b Template:Harvcoltxt
  26. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ a b c Template:Harvcoltxt
  31. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  32. ↑ Somali Dialects in the United States: How intelligible is Af-Maay to Speakers of Af-Maxaa? by Deqa Hassan (Minnesota State University - Mankato)
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ a b Template:Harvcoltxt
  39. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  40. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  41. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  42. ↑ Template:Harvtxt
  43. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  44. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  45. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ a b c Template:Harvcoltxt
  51. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  52. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  53. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ a b c Template:Harvcoltxt
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  59. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  60. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  61. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  62. ↑ a b Template:Harvcoltxt
  63. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  64. ↑ a b Template:Harvcoltxt
  65. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  66. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  67. ↑ a b c Template:Harvcoltxt
  68. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  70. ↑ a b Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somalia, The writing of the Somali language, (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1974), p.5
  71. ↑ Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain), Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Volume 22, "Mr. J. M. Hildebrandt on his Travels in East Africa", (Edward Stanford: 1878), p. 447.
  72. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  73. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  74. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  75. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  76. ↑ Economist Intelligence Unit (Great Britain), Middle East annual review, (1975), p.229
  77. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  78. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  79. ↑ Template:Harvcoltxt
  80. ↑ Sketch Engine. https://www.sketchengine.eu/sowac-somali-corpus/. Retrieved October 19, 20204.
  81. ↑ Nimaan, Abdillahi. 2014. Building and Evaluating Somali Language Corpora. In Jeff Good, Julia Hirschberg & Owen Rambow (eds.), Proceedings of the 2014 Workshop on the Use of Computational Methods in the Study of Endangered Languages, 73–76. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/W14-2210.
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