Korean mixed script

Korean mixed script (Korean: ; Hanja: Template:Category handler) is a form of writing the Korean language that uses a mixture of the Korean alphabet or hangul (한글Template:Script/doc/id-unk) and hanja (漢字Template:Script/doc/id-unk, 한자Template:Script/doc/id-unk), the Korean name for Chinese characters. The distribution on how to write words usually follows that all native Korean words, including suffixes, particles, and honorific markers are generally written in hangul and never in hanja. Sino-Korean vocabulary or hanja-eo (; Template:Category handler), either words borrowed from Chinese or created from Sino-Korean roots, were generally always written in hanja, although very rare or complex characters were often substituted with hangul. Although the Korean alphabet was introduced and taught to people beginning in 1446, most literature until the early twentieth century was written in literary Chinese known as hanmun (; Template:Category handler).

Although examples of mixed-script writing are as old as hangul itself, the mixing of hangul and hanja together in sentences became the official writing system of the Korean language at the end of the nineteenth century, when reforms ended the primacy of literary Chinese in literature, science, and government. This style of writing, in competition with hangul-only writing, continued as the formal written version of Korean for most of the twentieth century. The script slowly gave way to hangul-only usage in North Korea by 1949, while it continues in South Korea to a limited extent. However, with the decrease in hanja education, the number of hanja in use has slowly dwindled, and in the twenty-first century, very few hanja are used at all. In Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China, local newspaper Northeast Korean People's Daily published the "workers and peasants version" which used all-hangul in text, in addition to the existing "cadre version" that had mixed script, for the convenience of Template:Clarify span. Starting on April 20, 1952, the newspaper abolished the "cadre version" and published in hangul only. Soon, the entire publishing industry adopted the hangul-only style.

History and development

The development of required two major developments in orthographic traditions of the Korean Peninsula. The first was the adoption of , around the beginning of the Three Kingdom period of Korea. The second was the introduction of in 1446.

Promulgation of

Introduction

File:Korean old.jpg

Example of written in the traditional vertical manner. On the left are the original text in and on the right are modern orthography.

Despite the advent of vernacular writing in Korean using , these publications remained the dominion of the literate class, comprising royalty and nobility, Buddhist monks, Confucian scholars, civil servants and members of the upper classes as the ability to read these texts required proficient ability to understand the meaning of the Chinese characters, with both their adopted Sino-Korean pronunciation and their native gloss. To rectify this, King Sejong the Great (; Template:Category handler) summoned a team of scholars to devise a new script for the Korean language, leading to the 1446 promulgation of the (; Template:Category handler, 'correct pronunciation for teaching the people') which is later critiqued in . The problems surrounding literacy in Literary Chinese to the common populace was summarized in the Sejong's preface, written in Literary Chinese:

File:Hunminjeongum.jpg

The opening page of written in Literary Chinese, reading from top to bottom and right to left. The second to fifth columns are transcribed in this article. The final column depicts the letter , and that its sound is the initial of the Sino-Korean pronunciation of (Korean: ; RR: ; MR: Template:Category handler).

Template:Efn
[Because] the spoken language of this country is different from that of China, it does not flow well with [Chinese] characters. Therefore, even if the ignorant want to communicate, many of them in the end cannot state their concerns. Saddened by this, I have [had] 28 letters newly made. It is my wish that all the people may easily learn these letters and that [they] be convenient for daily use.

Spread

File:Songganggasa15-2.jpg

Songangasa, a collection of poems in mixed script by Jeong Cheol, printed in 1768

File:2007 11 25 WarMemorial 120.JPG

Preamble of the first version of the Constitution of South Korea written in mixed script

The new script rapidly spread to all parts of society, including the segments of the population formerly denied access to education such as farmers, fishermen, women of the lower classes, rural merchants and young children. It was known as vernacular script, (Korean: ; Hanja: ; RR: Template:Category handler, and ; ; Template:Category handler), or national script (; ; Template:Category handler), by the state. Several attempts to ban or over-turn the use of were initiated but failed to halt its spread, the most notable being during the 10th year of the tyrannical reign of prince Yeonsan, where he banned the use, learning, and teaching of Hangul on 19 July 1504 after the public mocked and insulted him in posters; the total ban ended five months later in December of the same year, when he ordered the translation of calendar-books (; ; Template:Category handler) into Hangul. These attempts were initiated by several rulers, who discovered disparaging remarks about their reigns, and the upper classes, whose grip on power and influence was predicated upon their ability to read, write and interpret classical Chinese texts and commentaries thereof. Some scholarly elite mocked the sole use of pseudo-deferentially as (; Template:Category handler), 'real script'. Other insults such as 'women's script', 'children's script' and 'farmer's hand' are known anecdotally but are not found in the literature.

Despite the fears from the upper classes and scholarly elite, the introduction of the early actually increased proficiency in literary Chinese. New-style dictionaries appeared, arranging words according to their alphabetic order when spelled out in , and showing compound words containing the as well as its Sino-Korean and its native, sometimes archaic, pronunciation — a system still in use for many contemporary Korean-language dictionaries. The syllable blocks could be written easily between meaningful units of Chinese characters, as annotations, but also began to replace the complex notation of the early and , including , although and were not officially abolished until the end of the 19th century in part because literary Chinese was still the official written language of the royal court, nobility, governance and diplomacy until its usage was finally abolished in the early twentieth century and its local production mostly ceased by mid-century.

The real spread of to all elements of Korean society was the late eighteenth century beginning of two literary trends. The ancient (; Template:Category handler), 'seasonal tune', poetry. Although , heavily influenced by Chinese Tang dynasty poetry, was long written in Chinese, authors began writing poems in Korean written solely with hangul, previously only possible with and . At the same time, (; Template:Category handler), 'song lyric', poetry was similarly spread. Korean women of the upper classes created by translating or finding inspiration in the old poems, written in literary Chinese, and translating them into Korean, but as the name suggests, were popularly sung. Although Catholic and Protestant missionaries initially attempted to evangelise the Korean Peninsula starting with the nobility using Chinese translations and works, in the early nineteenth century, Bishop Siméon-François Berneux, or (; Template:Category handler) mandated that all publications be written only in and all students in the missionary schools were required to use it. Protestant and other Catholic missionaries followed suit, facilitating the spread of Christianity in Korea, but also created a large corpus of Korean-language material written in only.

The script is now the primary and most commonplace method to write the Korean language, and is known as () in South Korea, from (; Template:Category handler), as in 'Korea', and (), 'script'. In North Korea, the script is known as (; Template:Category handler). The promulgation of the indigenous script is celebrated as a national holiday on 9 October in the south and 15 January in the north, respectively.

Mixed script or

File:대한제국 애국가.svg

The lyrics to the National anthem of the Korean Empire in Korean mixed script. The smaller after each group would normally be unwritten, but are presented to indicate the pronunciation of the Sino-Korean elements.

The practice of mixing into began as early as the introduction of . Even King Sejong's promulgation proclamation was written in literary Chinese and passages to explain the alphabet and mixed passages that help 'ease' the reader into the use of the alphabet. The first novel written in , (; Template:Category handler, Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven) is actually mostly written in what would now be considered mixed-script writing. Another major literary work touted as a masterpiece of -based literature, the 1590 translation of The Analects of Confucius (; Template:Category handler) by Yi Yulgok (; Template:Category handler) is also written entirely in .

Many Koreans today attribute to the Japanese occupation of Korea. This is in part due to the visual similarity of Chinese characters interspersed with alphabetic text of Japanese-language texts to Korean-language texts in mixed script, and the numerous assimilation and suppression schemes of the occupational government carried out against the Korean people, language and culture. In fact, was commonplace amongst the royalty, (; Template:Category handler) and classes for personal records and informal letters shortly after the introduction of the alphabet, and replaced the routine use of by the . The heyday of arrived with the Gap-o reforms (; Template:Category handler) passed in 1894–1896 after the Donghak Peasant Rebellion (; Template:Category handler). The reforms ended the client status of Korea to the Qing dynasty emperors, elevating King Gojong to Emperor Gwangmu (; Template:Category handler), ended the supremacy of literary Chinese and script, ended the imperial examinations. In place of literary Chinese, the Korean language written in the 'national letters' (; Template:Category handler)—now understood as an alternate name for but at the time referred to —was now the language of governance.

File:Yu Kil-chun.jpg

Yu Giljun (; Template:Category handler), author of the publication (; Template:Category handler) or Observations on Travels to the West

Due to over a thousand years of literary Chinese supremacy, the early texts were written in a stiff, prosaic style, with a preponderance of Sino-Korean terms barely removed from , but the written language was quickly adapted into the current format with a more natural style, using only where a Sino-Korean loan word was read in Sino-Korean pronunciation and for native words and grammatical particles. One of the most important publications at the end of the Joseon period was the weekly newspaper, (; Template:Category handler), one of the first written in the more natural style several years before the reforms. The popular newspaper was originally started as a -only publication that lasted only a few weeks before they switched formats. During the reforms, Yu Giljun (; Template:Category handler) published his travel diaries, (; Template:Category handler) or Observations on Travels to the West was a best-seller at this time. The success of and urged the literati to switch to vernacular Korean in .

Decline of mixed script

Mixed script was a commonly used means of writing, although exclusive writing has been used concurrently, in Korea after the decline of literary Chinese, known as (; Template:Category handler). Mixed script could be commonly found in non-fiction writing, newspapers, etc. until the enacting of President Park Chung-hee's 5 Year Plan for Hangul Exclusivity (Korean: ; Hanja: ; RR: Template:Category handler) in 1968 banned the use and teaching of in public schools, as well as forbade its use in the military, with the goal of eliminating in writing by 1972 through legislative and executive means. However, due to public backlash in 1972, Park's government allowed for the teaching of Hanja in special classes but maintained a ban on use in textbooks and other learning materials outside of the classes. This reverse step however, was optional so the availability of education was dependent on the school one went to.

Another reason for the decline is found in the Hangul typewriter and keyboard. The push for better Hangul typewriters mainly began in 1949, but as it was way before the ban, government institutions did not prefer typewriters altogether as they could not write in nor mixed script. Kong Byung Wo's notable type first appeared in March 1949, jointly winning second place in the 's () Hangul type contest, and Kim Dong Hoon's typewriter winning joint 3rd. During the 1950s and 1960s, alongside the Korean government's support for typewriting, new Hangul typewriters were developed, distributed, and adopted. Hangul type with both horizontal writing and (; the style of Hangul where Hangul consonants and vowels mix in together to form a full letter, which is the default style being used today) first appeared in the same period as government policy. With further adoption, during the 1970s, even when and mixed script were still used widely in society both as a writing system and as a style option, Koreans mostly gave up on mixed script at least in government documents and memorandums; The use of Hanja in type hindered the speed of writing and printing compared to only-Hangul usage, especially after the advent of the layout ()

Park's Hanja ban was not formally lifted until 1992 under the government of Kim Young-sam. In 1999, the government of Kim Dae-jung actively promoted Hanja by placing it on signs on the road, at bus stops, and in subways. In 1999, Hanja was reintroduced as a school elective and in 2001 the Hanja Proficiency Test (; ; Template:Category handler) was introduced. In 2005, an older law, the Law Concerning Hangul Exclusivity (; ; Template:Category handler) was repealed as well. In 2013, all elementary schools in Seoul started teaching Hanja. However, the result was that Koreans who were educated in this period, having never been formally educated in Hanja, were unable to use them and thus the use of Hanja plummeted in orthography until the modern day. Hanja is now very rarely used and is almost only used for abbreviations in newspaper headlines (e.g. for China, for Korea, for the United States, for Japan, etc.), for clarification in text where a word might be confused for another due to homophones (e.g. vs. ), or for stylistic use such as the (; Template:Category handler) used on Shin Ramyŏn packaging.

Structure

In a typical hanja-honyong texts, traditionally all words that were of Sino-Korean origin, either composed from Chinese character compounds natively or loan words directly from Chinese, were written in hanja although particularly rare or complicated hanja were often disambiguated with the hangul pronunciation and perhaps a gloss of the meaning. Native words, including Korean grammatical postpositions, were written in hangul. Due to the reforms at the close of the Joseon dynasty, native words were not supposed to be written in hanja, as they were in the idu and hyangchal systems which were abolished at this time.

Visual processing

In Korean mixed-script writing, especially in formal and academic contexts, the majority of semantic or 'content' words are generally written in hanja whereas most syntax or 'function' is conveyed with grammatical endings, particles and honorifics written in hangul. Japanese, which continues to use a heavily Chinese character-laden orthography, is read in the same way. The Chinese characters, have different angled strokes and oftentimes more strokes than a typical syllable block of hangul letters, and definitely more so than Japanese kana, enabling readers of both respective languages to process content information very quickly.

Korean readers, however, have a few more handicaps than Japanese readers. For instance, although academic, legal, scientific, history and literature have a higher proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary, Korean has more indigenous vocabulary used for semantic information, so older Korean readers often scan the hanja first and then piece together by reading the hangul content words to piece the meaning. Japanese avoids this problem by writing most content words with their Sino-Japanese equivalent of kanji, whereas reading Sino-Korean vocabulary according to their native Korean pronunciation or translation was banned in previous reforms, so only a Sino-Korean word can be written in hanja. The handicaps are avoided by the adoption of spaces inserted between phrases in modern Korean, limiting phrases, generally, to a content word and grammatical particle(s), allowing readers to spot the native Korean content words faster.

In reading texts, Koreans are faster at reading out passages written in hangul than in mixed script. However, although 'reading' is faster, understanding the texts is facilitated with the use of hanja in higher order language to the large number of homophones in the language, such as the continued role of 'hanja disambiguation' even in hangul-only texts. For instance, daehan (대한), usually understood in the context of the 'Great Han' (大韓, 대한) or 'Great Korean people,' can also indicate (大寒,대한) 'big winter,' the coldest part at the end of January and beginning of February, (大旱, 대한) 'severe drought,' (大漢, 대한) 'Great Chinese people,' (大恨, 대한) 'deep resentment,' (對韓, 대한) 'anti-Korean,' (對漢, 대한), 'anti-Chinese,' or (對한) 'about or 'toward.' Readers of technical and academic texts often have to clarify terms for the listener to avoid ambiguity, and most hanja are only used when necessary to clear confusion. As can be seen in the example below, the hanja in an otherwise mostly native vocabulary song stand out from the hangul text, thus appearing almost like bolded and enlarged text. This was further amplified in older texts, when hangul blocks were sometimes written smaller than the surrounding hanja.

First and Third Refrain from Seoul version of the Korean epic song Arirang (아리랑)
First Refrain	Mixed script	나를	버리고	가시는	임은	十里도	못가서	발病난다
	Hangul only	나를	버리고	가시는	임은	십리도	못가서	발병난다
	English	'I-[object]'	'to abandon-[serial sentence connector]'	'to go'-[topic]	'you-[topic]'	'ten li (distance)-[additive]'	'to be able to go-[primary conjunctive]'	'to have sore feet-[conjunctive/gerund]'
	Translation	My love, you are leaving me. Your feet will be SORE before you go TEN LI. 'You are going to abandon me and will not be able to go ten li [before] having sore feet.'
Third Refrain	Mixed script	저기	저	山이	白頭山이라지	冬至	섣달에도	꽃만	핀다
	Hangul only	저기	저	산이	백두산이라지	동지	섣달에도	꽃만	핀다
	English	'that-[nominal clause]'	'that'	'mountain-[nominative]'	'Baekdu Mountain-[plain declarative]-[nominative]-[casual declarative]'	'winter solstice'	'twelfth month-despite-[additive]'	'to bloom'	'to blossom'
	Translation	There, over there, that MOUNTAIN is BAEKDU MOUNTAIN, where, even in the middle of WINTER DAYS, flowers bloom. 'That one, that is Baekdu Mountain, surely. Despite the [middle of] winter [around the time of the] winter solstice, flowers bloom.'

Hanja disambiguation

Very few hanja are used in modern Korean writing, but are occasionally seen in academic and technical texts and formal publications, such as newspapers, where the rare hanja is used as a shorthand in newspaper headlines, especially if the native Korean equivalent is a longer word, or more importantly, to disambiguate the meaning of a word. Sino-Korean words make up over 70% of the Korean language, although only a third of them are in common usage, but that proportion increases in formal and highbrow publications. A native Korean syllable may have up to 1,300 possible combinations compared to the Sino-Korean inventory of 400. Although Middle Korean developed tones that may have facilitated differentiation of words, this development was lost in the transition to modern Korean, making many words homophones of each other. Cantonese, whose pronunciation of the characters is similar to the Sino-Korean pronunciation due to its conservative phonology and the ancient age in which these words entered Korean, has several words pronounced : Template:Zh 'new', Template:Zh 'body', Template:Zh 'deity', Template:Zh 'difficult' or 'spicy', Template:Zh 'large clam', Template:Zh 'kidney' and Template:Zh 'to lament.' Although even in Cantonese Template:Zh, Template:Zh and Template:Zh are true homophones with the pronunciation of with the high tone, each of the other examples is pronounced with a unique tone that distiniguish them from the first three and each other: Template:Zh , Template:Zh and Template:Zh . In Korean, the hanja-eo reading of all these characters is and in hangul spelling all share and no tone to distinguish them.

By the mid-1990s, when even the most conservative newspapers stopped publishing in hanja-honyong, with most ceasing in the 1980s, and switched to a generally all-hangul format, the use of characters to clarify the meaning of a word, 'hanja disambiguation', is still common, in part due to complaints from older subscribers that were educated in the mixed script and were used to using hanja glosses. From this 2018 article from the conservative newspaper The Chosun Ilbo, two phrases are disambiguated with hanja:

• (hangul with hanja disambiguation)
• (hanja with hangul disambiguation)
• "The pinnacle years of the 2003–2004 season was a championship victory for the undefeated league. The undefeated championship of that period is still 'roast meat' (praised)."

Although in many instances, context can help discern the meaning, and many of the possible variants are obscure or rare characters that would be encountered only in either classical literature or literary Chinese thus limiting choices. In more relaxed publications, where hanja disambiguation is less common, Sino-Korean terms are avoided as much as possible, although this may appear as "dumbed down" material to some readers. Context can often facilitate the meaning of many terms. Many Sino-Korean terms that are rare and only encountered in ancient texts in literary Chinese are almost unknown and would not even be part of the hanja taught in education, limiting the number of likely choices.

Sino-Korean (漢字語, 한자어, hanja-eo) homophones
신지 sinji	종고 jonggo	선공 seon-gong	가기 gagi	국 guk	광 gwang
信地 patrol zone	仙種(?) types of ghost	先攻 first strike	佳期 good season nuptial consummation	局 bureau administration	光 light (as in illumination)
宸旨 minister	宗高 noble ancestry	扇工 hand fan laborer	可期 expectation to pledge	國 country nation region	廣 breadth
信之 truthfulness	終古 ancient times	船工 shipmate	佳氣 noble aura	菊 chrysanthemum	鑛 mine (as in an excavation where ores and minerals are found)
愼之 caution fearfulness	從姑 paternal cousin	善恐 throat disease	家妓 housemaid	鞠 to bend to curve to bow leather ball	狂 madness
臣指 official court minister	從古 previous times	善功 virtuous success	家忌 death anniversary	鵴 cuckoo	匡 rectify
新地 reclaimed land	鐘鼓 bell and drum		哥器 Ge ware	椈 cypress	壙 tomb
新枝 spring growth new branches			稼器 farm implements	麯 malt	胱 bladder
新知 new knowledge				攫 grasp	筐 basket made of bamboo
神地 tutelary deity

Examples

Korean in hanja-honyong and hangul
Hanja-honyong (top), Hangul (middle) and Romaja (last)	English
Template:Fs interlinear	As the number of unemployed continues to rise, the government is planning improvements.
Template:Fs interlinear	The research results that may improve Korean agriculture are now public.
Template:Fs interlinear	Chosun Ilbo was first published in 1920. Almost 100 years have been passed since then.
Template:Fs interlinear	The soldier who revived an elderly person with CPR while on vacation became a headline.
Template:Fs interlinear	Internet reservations are more convenient than telephone reservations.
Template:Fs interlinear	Yesterday, sunrise was at 5:10 and sunset was at 19:53.

The text below is the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Korea. The first text is written in Hangul; the second is its mixed script version; and the third is its unofficial English translation.

유구한 역사와 전통에 빛나는 우리 대한 국민은 3⸱1 운동으로 건립된 대한민국 임시 정부의 법통과 불의에 항거한 4⸱19 민주 이념을 계승하고, 조국의 민주 개혁과 평화적 통일의 사명에 입각하여 정의⸱인도와 동포애로써 민족의 단결을 공고히 하고, 모든 사회적 폐습과 불의를 타파하며, 자율과 조화를 바탕으로 자유 민주적 기본 질서를 더욱 확고히 하여 정치⸱경제⸱사회⸱문화의 모든 영역에 있어서 각인의 기회를 균등히 하고, 능력을 최고도로 발휘하게 하며, 자유와 권리에 따르는 책임과 의무를 완수하게 하여, 안으로는 국민 생활의 균등한 향상을 기하고 밖으로는 항구적인 세계 평화와 인류 공영에 이바지함으로써 우리들과 우리들의 자손의 안전과 자유와 행복을 영원히 확보할 것을 다짐하면서 1948년 7월 12일에 제정되고 8차에 걸쳐 개정된 헌법을 이제 국회의 의결을 거쳐 국민 투표에 의하여 개정한다.

1987년 10월 29일

悠久한 歷史와 傳統에 빛나는 우리 大韓國民은 3⸱1 運動으로 建立된 大韓民國臨時政府의 法統과 不義에 抗拒한 4⸱19 民主理念을 繼承하고, 祖國의 民主改革과 平和的統一의 使命에 立脚하여 正義⸱人道와 同胞愛로써 民族의 團結을 鞏固히 하고, 모든 社會的弊習과 不義를 打破하며, 自律과 調和를 바탕으로 自由民主的基本秩序를 더욱 確固히 하여 政治⸱經濟⸱社會⸱文化의 모든 領域에 있어서 各人의 機會를 均等히 하고, 能力을 最高度로 發揮하게 하며, 自由와 權利에 따르는 責任과 義務를 完遂하게 하여, 안으로는 國民生活의 均等한 向上을 基하고 밖으로는 恒久的인 世界平和와 人類共榮에 이바지함으로써 우리들과 우리들의 子孫의 安全과 自由와 幸福을 永遠히 確保할 것을 다짐하면서 1948年 7月 12日에 制定되고 8次에 걸쳐 改正된 憲法을 이제 國會의 議決을 거쳐 國民投票에 依하여 改正한다.

1987年 10月 29日

We, the people of Korea, proud of a resplendent history and traditions dating from time immemorial, upholding the cause of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea born of the March First Independence Movement of 1919 and the democratic ideals of the April Revolution of 1960, having assumed the mission of democratic reform and peaceful unification of our homeland and having determined to consolidate national unity with justice, humanitarianism and brotherly love, and to destroy all social vices and injustice, and to afford equal opportunities to every person and provide for the fullest development of individual capabilities in all fields, including political, economic, social and cultural life by further strengthening the free and democratic basic order conducive to private initiative and public harmony, and to help each person discharge those duties and responsibilities concomitant to freedoms and rights, and to elevate the quality of life for all citizens and contribute to lasting world peace and the common prosperity of mankind and thereby to ensure security, liberty and happiness for ourselves and our posterity forever, do hereby amend, through national referendum following a resolution by the National Assembly, the Constitution, ordained and established on July 12, 1948, and amended eight times subsequently.

October 29, 1987

• Gallery
• A newspaper on 29 April 1926
  A newspaper on 29 April 1926
• A newspaper on 30 June 1933
  A newspaper on 30 June 1933
• A newspaper on 14 August 1945
  A newspaper on 14 August 1945
• Operation Moolah propaganda leaflet by the US Army during the Korean War promising a $100,000 reward to the first North Korean pilot to deliver a Soviet MiG-15 to UN forces
  Operation Moolah propaganda leaflet by the US Army during the Korean War promising a $100,000 reward to the first North Korean pilot to deliver a Soviet MiG-15 to UN forces
• The Korean Declaration of Independence on display at Tapgol Park, Seoul
  The Korean Declaration of Independence on display at Tapgol Park, Seoul

See also

• Hanja and Sino-Korean vocabulary
• Debate on mixed script and Hangul exclusivity
• Kanji and Sino-Japanese vocabulary
• Chữ Hán and Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary
• New Korean Orthography
• Egyptian hieroglyphs, another mixed logographic and segmental writing system.

Further reading

• Lukoff, Fred (1982). "Introduction." A First Reader in Korean Writing in Mixed Script. Seoul: Yonsei University Press.