Ashina tribe

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "For". Template:Short description Script error: No such module "infobox".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[[Category:Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters|Expression error: Unexpected < operatorAshina tribe]] The Ashina (Script error: No such module "Lang-zh".; Middle Chinese: (Guangyun) Script error: No such module "IPA".) were a Turkic tribe and the ruling dynasty of the Göktürks. They rose to prominence in the mid-6th century when the leader, Bumin Qaghan (died 552), revolted against the Rouran Khaganate. The two main branches of the family, one descended from Bumin and the other from his brother Istämi, ruled over the eastern and western parts of the Göktürk confederation, respectively, forming the First Turkic Khaganate (552–603).

Origin

Primary Chinese sources ascribed different origins to the Ashina tribe. They were first attested to 439, as reported by the Book of Sui: on the 18th day of the 10th month, the Tuoba ruler Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei overthrew Juqu Mujian of the Northern Liang in eastern Gansu,[4][5][6][7] and 500 Ashina families fled northwest to the Rouran Khaganate near Gaochang.[4]Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

According to the Book of Zhou, History of the Northern Dynasties, and the New Book of Tang, the Ashina clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation,[8][9][10][11] but this is contested.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". The Göktürks were also posited as having originated from an obscure Suo state (索國), north of the Xiongnu.[8][9] According to the Book of Sui and the Tongdian, they were "mixed barbarians" (雜胡; záhú) from Pingliang.[4][12]

According to some researchers (Duan, Xue, Tang, and Lung) the Ashina tribe descended from the Tiele confederation,[13][14][15][16][17] who were likewise associated with the Xiongnu.[18][19] Like the Göktürks, the Tiele were a Turkic tribal confederation on the steppe.[20][21] However, Lee & Kuang (2017) state that Chinese histories did not describe the Ashina-led Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or belonging to the Tiele confederation.Template:Sfnp The name "Ashina" was recorded in ancient Muslim chronicles in these forms: Aś(i)nas (al-Tabari), Ānsa (Hudud al-'Alam), Śaba (Ibn Khordadbeh), Śana, Śaya (Al-Masudi).[22][23]

Etymology

Indo-European

File:An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in Yurt. Xi’an, 579 CE. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg
The Sogdian merchant An Jia conversing with a Turkic Chieftain in his yurt (579 AD).[24][25]

Several researchers, including Peter B. Golden,[26] H. W. Haussig,[27] S. G. Klyashtorny,[28][29] Carter V. Findley,[30] D. G. Savinov,[31] B. A. Muratov,[32] S. P. Guschin,[33] and András Róna-Tas[34] have posited that the term Ashina ultimately descends from an Indo-European root, possibly Tocharian or one of Eastern Iranic languages, such as the Saka.[35] Jonathan Ratcliffe also supports this theory.[36]

Carter V. Findley assumes that the name "Ashina" comes from one of the Saka languages of central Asia and means "blue" (which translates to Proto-Turkic *kȫk, whence Old Turkic 𐰚𐰇𐰚 kök, and same in all Modern Turkic languages). The color blue is identified with the east, so that Göktürk, another name for the Turkic empire, meant the "Turks of the East"; meanwhile, Peter Benjamin Golden favours a more limited denotation of Göktürks as denoting only the Eastern Turks.[37][38] Findley also said that the term böri, used to identify the ruler's retinue as 'wolves', probably also derived from one of the Iranian languages.[39]

H. W. Haussig and S. G. Kljyashtorny suggest an association between the name and the compound "kindred of Ashin" ahşaẽna (in Old Persian). This is so even in East Turkestan; then the desired form would be in the Sogdian 'xs' yn' k (-әhšēnē) "blue, dark"; Khotan-Saka (Brahmi) āşşeiņa (-āşşena) "blue", where a long -ā- emerged as development ahş-> āşş-; in Tocharian A āśna- "blue, dark" (from Khotan-Saka and Sogdian). There is textual support for either of these versions in the Göktürk Orkhon inscriptions, in which the Göktürks are described as the "Blue Turks"; being descended from the marriage between Blue Sky and the Brown Earth.[40][41]

According to Kuastornyj, the perfect translation of "Ashina" as an Indo-European word meaning "blue" indicates that the Türks of the First Turkic Khaganate period may aware of the non-Türkic origin of the name "Ashina." In this hypothesis of Louis Bazin, this knowledge was being suppressed in the Second Turkic Khaganate period by the Türkic nationalist policies of Bilge Qaghan.[42][43]

Turkic or East Asian

File:Turkic horseman (Tomb of An Jia, 579 CE).jpg
Turkic horseman (Tomb of An Jia, 579 AD).[24][25]

Peter A. Boodberg reconstructs the Chinese transcription Script error: No such module "Lang".'s Middle Chinese pronunciation as *’âṣinâ, which he derives from Turkic *ašïn, further from Proto-Turkic root *aš- ("to cross a mountain"),Template:Efn referring to the origin legend wherein the wolf-descended Turks had to cross mountains.[44][45] Boodberg additionally derives the Middle Chinese transcription Script error: No such module "Lang". *’âṣitək (whence standard Chinese Āshǐdé) from this same root *aš-,[44] immediately through *aşıd-.[45]

Japanese Sinologist and historian Kurakichi Shiratori suggested that Ashina comes from *Esh- in Proto-Turkic.[46] Christopher I. Beckwith reads the word Ashina as a Turkic name Arslan, based on Byzantine historian Menander Protector's record that “the name of the earliest rulers of the Turks was Arsilas” meaning that Ashina may have been an earlier form or a Chinese corrupted form of Arslan.[47]

Based on Chinese sources' testament that the Ashina, upon becoming the head of Turks, exhibited a tuğ banner with a wolf head over their gate in reminiscence of its origins,[48][49][50] the name "Ashina" is translated by Boodberg as "wolf", cf. Tuoba 叱奴 *čino, Middle Mongol činua, Khalkha čono.[51] Gumilev, on the other hand, considered 阿 (A) as a prefix, a respect marker placed before a name, and accepted 'shih-na' as činua, just as Boodberg did; thus, he concluded that A-shih-na means "noble wolf."[52] Nevertheless, Golden contends that derivation from Mongolic is mistaken.[53]

On the Khor-Asgat inscription, the form Ašїnas is written and is similar to the Sogdian form Ašinas from the Bugut and Karabalgasun steles and the Arabic forms Ašinās and Ašnās from medieval Islamic sources. Reasoning that Chinese editors usually avoided the coda /-s/, Takashi Ōsawa hypothetically derives the family name Ašїnas from their tribal ancestress's name *A-ši-naTemplate:Efn and the final element -as, which he explains as a plural suffix (similar to the Turkic Käŋäräs < Käŋär "(Kangar / Kangly)" + suffix -(ä)s) as proposed by Marquart, Melioranskii and others.

He further links *A-ši-na to the Xiongnu title 閼氏, which was pronounced *′ât-zie in Late Middle Chinese,Template:Efn meant "wife of a ruler", and might be derived from *aš / eš, *azhi / *ezhi < *ašïn / *ešin, and *azhïn / *ezhin, further from Tungusic *Aši < *asun / *asi < *hasun < *khasu < *kasun < *katsun and Turko-Mongolic *Ači < ačun < *hatun < khatun < katun.Template:Efn[54]

Legends

File:Turkic horsemen with unidentifiable ambassadors on top.jpg
Turkic horsemen with long hair on the Miho funerary couch. Circa 570 AD. Northern Dynasties, China.[55][25]

Chinese chroniclers recorded four origin tales, which Golden termed "Wolf Tale I", "Wolf Tale II", "Shemo (Žama) and the Deer Tale" and "Historical Account", of the Turks in dynasty histories and historical compilations "based on or copied from the same source(s) and repeated in later collections of historical tales".[53]

  • Wolf Tale I: Ashina was one of ten sons born to a grey she-wolf (see: Asena) in the north of Gaochang.[56]
  • Wolf Tale II: The ancestor of the Ashina was a man from the Suo nation (north of Xiongnu) whose mother was a lupine season goddess.[56]
  • Shemo and the Deer Tale: The Ashina descended from a skilled archer named Shemo, who had once fallen in love with a sea goddess west of Ashide cave.[57][58]
  • Historical Account: The Ashina were mixture stocks from the Pingliang commandery of eastern Gansu.[59]

These stories were sometimes pieced together to form a chronologically coherent narrative of early Ashina history. However, as the Book of Zhou, the Book of Sui, and the Youyang Zazu were all written around the same time, during the early Tang dynasty, it is debatable whether they could truly be considered chronological or rather should be considered competing versions of the Ashina's origin.[60]

The record of Turks in Zhoushu (written in the first half of the seventh century) describes the use of gold by Turks around the mid-fifth century:

"(The Turks) put gold sculpture of wolf head on their tuğ banner; their military men were called Fuli, that is, wolf in Chinese. It is because they are descendants of the wolf, and naming so is for not forgetting their ancestors."[61]

According to Klyashtorny, the origin myth of Ashina shared similarities with the Wusun, although there is a significant difference that, whereas in the Wusun myth the wolf saves the ancestor of the tribe, it is not as in the case of the Turks. He also adds that Turk system of beliefs linking at least some sections of the Turk ruling class to the Sogdians and, beyond them, to the Wusun.[35]

Funeral rite

File:Niri Qaghan.jpg
Statue of Niri Qaghan, Xinjiang, China

The Chronicle of Northern Zhou describes the funeral rites of the Ashina. The deceased were laid to rest in a tent, and animals would be sacrificed around the tent. Relatives of the deceased would ride horses around the tent and ritualistically cut themselves about the face as a display of mourning, or "blood tears". The individual and their belongings would then be incinerated.[62]

According to D. G. Savinov, no burials have been found in South Siberia nor Central Asia that are fully consistent with the description of Ashina burials.

According to D. G. Savinov this may be for several reasons:

  1. Göktürk burial sites in Central Asia and Southern Siberia are not yet open;
  2. The source is a compilation in character, and burial rituals and funeral cycle from various sources are listed in a unified manner;
  3. Göktürk funeral rites in the form in which they are recorded in written sources, developed later on the basis of the various components present in some of the archaeological sites of Southern Siberia of earlier Turkic cultures.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

It is thought that the rite of cremation which was adopted by the ruling elite did not spread among the common people of the Khaganate. This may be attributed to the different ethnic origin of the ruling family.[63]

Physical appearance

File:Turkic Head of Koltegin Statue (35324303410).jpg
Bust of Kul Tigin (684–731), an Ashina Prince.

According to the Book of Zhou and the History of the Northern Dynasties, the Ashina clan was related to the "Yenisei Kyrgyz",[64][65]Template:EfnTemplate:Efn who resided near the Pamir mountains and are described as possessing red hair and blue eyes in the New Book of Tang (Xin Tangshu 217b.6147),[66]Template:Sfnp a description previously used to describe the Wusun.Template:Sfnp However according to Lee & Kuang (2017), the Göktürks differed from the Kyrgyz in their physiognomy and "no comparable depiction of the Kök Türks or Tiele is found in the official Chinese histories."Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Lee & Kuang state that the most likely explanation for the West Eurasian physiognomy of the Yenisei Kirghiz is a high frequency of the Eurasian Indo-European haplogroup R1a-Z93.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang visited the western Göktürk capital Suyab in modern-day Kyrgyzstan and left a description of the Ashina Tong:

The khan wore a green satin robe; his hair, which was ten feet long, was free. A band of white silk wound round his forehead and hung down behind. The ministers of the presence,[67] numbering two hundred in number, all wearing embroidered robes, stood on his right and left. The rest of his military retinue [was] clothed in fur, serge and fine wool, the spears and standards and bows in order, and the riders of camels and horses stretched far out of [sight].[68]

20th-century Chinese historian Xue Zongzheng claimed original Ashina members had physical features similar to Sogdians was by the time of Qilibi Khan,Template:Efn an eighth generation descendant of Bumin Qaghan, presented as a sign of mixed ancestry among the Ashina.[69]

However, both Shibi Khan (609–619 AD) and Heshana Qaghan (604–612 AD) were doubtful of Qilibi being Ashina because he resembled a Sogdian more than a Göktürk which prevented him from being a shad.[70][71][72]

This hypothesis was not supported by general consensus. DNA studies on early members of the Ashina family revealed that they were exclusively East Asian.[73] Muqan Qaghan, the third qaghan of the First Turkic Khaganate, was described by Chinese authors as having an unusual appearance. He had eyes like "colored glazes",Template:Sfnp[74] he had a very red complexion, and his face was over a foot wide. Traits evocative of Northeast or East Asian physiognomy.[75][76]

Genetics

File:Map of the Ancient Northeast Asians.png
Empress Ashina (551–582), an early royal Ashina member and immediate descendant of the founding Göktürk khagans, belonged genetically to the Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA, Template:Colorsample yellow area), supporting the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Gökturks.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[77]

In 2023 the first genetic analysis on an early royal Ashina member (Empress Ashina, the daughter of Muqan Qaghan) found nearly exclusively Northeast Asian ancestry (97.7%) next to a minor West-Eurasian component (2.3%). The West-Eurasian component corresponded to a single mixture event dating to around 1566 ± 396 years before Ashina's lifetime (dating to c. 1000 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".).

It was determined that Empress Ashina belonged to the North-East Asian mtDNA haplogroup F1d. The Ashina individual was found to be genetically closer to East Asians than modern Central Asian Turkic groups. However, East Asian Turkic groups such as Dolgan, Salar, Tuvinian, Yakut, Chuvash Altaian, Altaian-Chelkan, Khakass, Kazakh-China, Kyrgyz-China showed genetic genetic affinity with Ashina.[78] The Ashina individual was genetically closest to post-Iron Age Tungusic and Mongolic Steppe pastoralists, supporting the near-exclusively Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and early Turkic populations.[78]

The ancient Türkic royal family of the Göktürks was found to share genetic affinities to post-Iron Age Tungusic and Mongolic pastoralists, while having heterogeneous relationships towards various later Turkic-speaking groups, suggesting genetic heterogeneity and multiple sources of origin for the later populations of the Turkic empire. This shows that the Ashina lineage had a dominating contribution on Mongolic and Tungusic speakers but limited contribution on Turkic-speaking populations. According to the authors of the 2023 study, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses" in favor of an East Asian origin for the royal Ashina family.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Legacy

Members of the Ashina dynasty also ruled the Basmyls,[79][80][81] and Karluk Yabghu's State;[82] and possibly also Khazars[83][84] and Karakhanids (if the first Karakhanid ruler Bilge Kul Qadir Khan indeed descended from the Karluk Yabghus).[85] According to some researchers, the Second Bulgarian Empire's Asen dynasty might be descendants of Ashina.[86]

Gallery

Script error: No such module "Gallery".

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. ↑ International Turkic Academy, (2015), TÜRK BENGÜ TAŞI: Şivеet-Ulаan Damgalı Anıtı, p. 13 (in Turkish)
  2. ↑ Grač, 1957, p. 408-414
  3. ↑ "The tamga of the royal clan of the first Turkish empire was a neatly drawn lineal picture of an ibex", Kljastornyj, 1980, p. 93
  4. ↑ a b c Wei Zheng et al., Book of Sui, Vol. 84. Template:In lang
  5. ↑ Wei Shou, Book of Wei, Vol. 4-I. Template:In lang
  6. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 123. Template:In lang
  7. ↑ 永和七年 (太延五年) 九月丙戌 Academia Sinica Template:In lang Script error: No such module "webarchive".
  8. ↑ a b Linghu Defen et al., Book of Zhou, Vol. 50. Template:In lang
  9. ↑ a b Li Yanshou (李延寿), History of the Northern Dynasties, Vol. 99. Template:In lang
  10. ↑ New Book of Tang, vol. 215 upper. "突厥阿史那氏, 蓋古匈奴北部也." "The Ashina family of the Turk probably were the northern tribes of the ancient Xiongnu." translated by Xu (2005)
  11. ↑ Xu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005
  12. ↑ 杜佑, 《通典》, 北京: 中華書局出版, (Du You, Tongdian, Vol.197), 辺防13 北狄4 突厥上, 1988, Template:ISBN, p. 5401. Template:In lang
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Duan: Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele. 1988, pp. 39–41
  15. ↑ Xue, Zongzheng History of Turks (1992). 39–85
  16. ↑ Rachel Lung, Interpreters in Early Imperial China, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 48 "Türk, or Türküt, refers to a state of Ašina clan (of Tiele [鐵勒] tribe by ancestral lineage)"
  17. ↑ Duan: Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele. 1988, pp. 39–41
  18. ↑ Old Book of Tang Vol. 199 lower "鐵勒，本匈奴別種" tr. "Tiele, originally a splinter race from Xiongnu"
  19. ↑ Suishu, Vol. 84 "鐵勒之先，匈奴之苗裔也" tr. "Tiele's predecessors are Xiongnu's descendants."
  20. ↑ Suribadalaha, "New Studies of the Origins of the Mongols", p. 46–47
  21. ↑ Cheng, Fangyi. "The Research on the Identification Between Tiele and the Oghuric Tribes".
  22. ↑ Гумилёв Л. Н. Древние тюрки. М.-Л., Наука, 1967.
  23. ↑ P. B. Golden, "Irano-Turcica: The Khazar sacral kingship revisited," in Acta Orientalia Hungarica 60:2 (2007) p. 165, 172, n. 33
  24. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Haussig Н. W. "Byzantinische Qullen über Mittelasien in ihrer historischen Aussage" // Prolegomena to the sources on the history of pre-Islamic Central Asia. Budapest, 1979. S. 55–56.
  28. ↑ Кляшторный С. Г. Проблемы ранней истории племени тÿрк (ашина). // Новое в советской археологии. / МИА № 130. М.: 1965. С. 278–281.
  29. ↑ Kjyashtorny S. G. The Royal Clan of the Turks and the Problem of its Designation // Post-Soviet Central Asia. Edited by Touraj Atabaki and John O'Kane. Tauris Academic Studies. London*New York in association with IIAS. International Institute for Asian Studies. Leiden-Amsterdam, p. 366–369.
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Савинов Д.Г. Владение Цигу древнетюркских генеалогических преданий и таштыкская культура. // Историко-культурные связи народов Южной Сибири. Абакан: 1988. С. 64–74.
  32. ↑ Муратов Б. А, Р.Р. Суюнов Р. Р. Cаки-динлины, аорсы, Ашина и потомки кланов Дешти-Кипчака по данным ДНК-генеалогии // ВАД, Том 7, №8, Август 2014, стр. 1198-1226.
  33. ↑ Wen S.-Q., Muratov B.A., Suyunov R.R. The haplogroups of the representatives from ancient Turkic clans – Ashina and Ashide // BEHPS. Template:Catalog lookup linkScript error: No such module "check isxn"., Volume 3, No. 2 [1,2]. March 2016. p. 154–157. R.R. Suyunov, Муратов Б.А., Суюнов Р.Р. Саки-динлины, аорсы, Ашина и потомки кланов Дешти-Кипчака по данным ДНК-генеалогии // Вестник Академии ДНК-генеалогии (Бостон, США) → Том 7, №8, Август 2014, стр. 1198–1226., Muratov, Муратов Б.А. ДНК-генеалогия тюркоязычных народов Урала, Волги и Кавказа. Том 4, серия «Этногеномика и ДНК-генеалогия», ЭИ Проект «Суюн». Vila do Conde, Lidergraf, 2014, илл. Template:ISBN.
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ C. V. Findley 39.
  38. ↑ Golden, P.B. (1992) Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Series: Turcologia, Volume 9. Otto-Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden p. 117
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". "Dans le recit relatif aux premiers kagans, les grandes inscriptions de l'Orkhon dèsignent le peuple qui avait créé l'empire et habité le pays par le terme kök türk, ce que l'on traduit habituellement les "Turcs bleu chair (bleus)". Sans aborder les nombreuses interprétations du mot kök dans cette combinaison, notons sa convergence sémantique parfaite avec la signification, reconstituée ici, du nom A-che-na: "bleu". Un calque èvident du nom suppose la connaissance conservée de sons sens primitif et de son origine étrangère (tout à fait compatible avec les composantes poly-ethniques de la culture du premier Kaganant turc), lesquels perdirent toutefois leur popularité dans le milieu culturel et politique "nationaliste" (selon l'expression de L. BAZIN, qui caractérise à l'époque de Bilgä-kagan le milieu dirigeant d'Ötükän, centre de pourvoir dans la région de l'Orkhon)."
  43. ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  44. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Bichurin, 1950, p. 220–221
  49. ↑ Zhoushu, vol. 50: quote: "旗纛之上，施金狼頭。侍衞之士，謂之附離，夏言亦狼也。蓋本狼生，志不忘舊。"
  50. ↑ Suishu vol. 84. quote "故牙門建狼頭纛，示不忘本也。"
  51. ↑ Boodberg, 1936, p. 182
  52. ↑ Gumilev, 1967, p. 23
  53. ↑ a b Golden, Peter B. (August 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal, 21(2). 21 (2): 292.
  54. ↑ Takashi Ōsawa, “A hypothesis on the etymology of the Old Turkic royal clan name Ašina/Ašinas and the transformation process in the early Abbasid period”, Chronica, S. 11, (2011), pp. 145-153.
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ a b Zhoushu, vol. 50 Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Youyang_Zazu, vol. 4 [1]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  58. ↑ Youyang Zazu, "vol. 4". Siku Quanshu version, pp. 119, 120, 121 of 161.
  59. ↑ Suishu, vol. 84 Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  60. ↑ Xue, Zongzheng. History of Turks (1992) 39–85
  61. ↑ Zhoushu, vol. 50. quote: "旗纛之上，施金狼頭。侍衞之士，謂之附離，夏言亦狼也。蓋本狼生，志不忘舊。"
  62. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  63. ↑ Савинов Д.Г. Народы Южной Сибири в древнетюркскую эпоху Глава II. Раннетюркское время 1. Древнетюркские генеалогические предания и археологические памятники раннетюркского времени (с. 31–40)
  64. ↑ Zhoushu, "vol. 50 - section Tujue"
  65. ↑ Beishi, "vol. 99 -section Tujue"
  66. ↑ 結骨 (Kyrgyz)... 人皆長大，赤發、皙面、綠瞳，以黑髮為不祥。Xin Tangshu 217b.6147
  67. ↑ "ta-Kuan"", probably tarkhan is intended; see Christian 260.
  68. ↑ Adapted from Watters I:74,77.
  69. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". "According to Xue Zongzheng (1992:80), the emergence of less-Caucasoid features in the Turkic ruling class was probably due to the intermarriage with the Chinese imperial families from generation to generation. Consequently, up to the Qagan's eighth generation descendant, Ashina Simo, his racial features remained unchanged to the extent in which he was described as looking like a Hu (Sogdian) person, not akin to Turkic, and suspected to be not of Ashina genealogical strain, and henceforth was unfortunately not trusted for military commandership (JTS 194.5163). Xue Zongzheng argues that 'looking like a Hu person' was originally the intrinsic feature of the Ashina lineage, then became presented as a sign of impure blood as a result of the qualitative change occurred in the hybrid physical features combining both Mongoloid and Caucasoid physical traits."
  70. ↑ Jiu Tangshu, [舊唐書/卷194上 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆 vol. 194a], txt: '思摩者, 頡利族人也. 始畢、處羅以其貌似胡人, 不類突厥, 疑非阿史那族類, 故歷處羅, 頡利世, 常為夾畢特勒, 終不得典兵為設'
  71. ↑ translated by and quoted in Lee & Kuang (2017) "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples", Inner Asia 19. p. 201-202. note 13
  72. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  73. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  74. ↑ Beishi vol. 99 "狀貌奇異，面廣尺餘，其色赤甚，眼若琉璃。"
  75. ↑ Zhoushu, vol. 50 ""狀貌多奇異，面廣尺餘，其色甚赤，眼若瑠璃。"
  76. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". "Some of the “Hu", including the Köktürk Qaghan Mu-kan and the Qirghïz Turks, were reported by the Chinese to have Europeoid features, such as aquiline noses, red hair and light-coloured eyes."
  77. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  78. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  79. ↑ Zizhi Tongjian Vol. 212, cited in Zuev Yu.A., Horse Tamgas from Vassal Princedoms (translation of 8-10th century Chinese Tanghuyao), Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences, Alma-Ata, 1960, p. 104, 132 Template:In lang
  80. ↑ Klyashtorny, S.G. "The Polovcian Problems (II)" in Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Vol. 58, No. 3, Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Mediaeval History of the Eurasian Steppe: Szeged, Hungary May 11—16, 2004: Part III (2005). p. 245
  81. ↑ Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the History of Turkic Peoples, p. 142-143
  82. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  83. ↑ Pritsak, Omeljan (September 1978). "The Khazar Kingdom's Conversion to Judaism" (PDF). Harvard Ukrainian Studies. II (3): 261–281.
  84. ↑ Golden, Peter Benjamin (2007a). "Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives". In Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 17. BRILL. pp. 7–57. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.
  85. ↑ "Karluk Yabghu State (756-940)" Qazaqstan Tarihy. quote: "In 840, in the Central Asian steppes an important event occurred. The Yenisei Kyrgyz invasion destroyed the Uighur Khaganate, forcing the Uighurs to flee to Turfan oasis and to Gansu [original article mistakenly has Guangzhou]. The Karluk Djabgu and the ruler of Isfijab, Bilge Kul Qadeer-Khan, took advantage of the situation and proclaimed himself as a sovereign ruler and assumed a new title of Khagan."
  86. ↑ Sychev N. V., (2008), Книга династий, p. 161-162

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Sources

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Cheng, Fangyi. "The Research on the Identification Between Tiele and the Oghuric Tribes".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Duan: Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele. 1988, pp. 39–41
  • Findley, Carter Vaughin. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press, 2005. Template:ISBN.
  • Golden, Peter. An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East, Harrassowitz, 1992.
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia 2nd ed. Soviet Encyclopedia, 1950–1958.
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Róna-Tas, András. Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages. Central European University Press, 1999. Template:ISBN. Page 280.
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Suribadalaha, "New Studies of the Origins of the Mongols", p. 46–47.
  • Xue, Zongzheng. A History of Turks. Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press, 1992. Template:ISBN.
  • Zhu, Xueyuan. The Origins of Northern China's Ethnicities. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2004. Template:ISBN.

External links

Template:Göktürks Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Retrieved from "http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Ashina_tribe&oldid=6171931"