Abjad: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
imported>Emeraldywye m →Comparative chart of abjads, extinct and extant: made the word 'Boustrophedon' lowercase to match the other instances of the word on the table |
→External links: Added a link to Wiktionary. |
||
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Writing system where each symbol stands for a consonant}} | {{short description|Writing system where each symbol stands for a consonant}} | ||
{{For|the traditional ordering of the letters of the Arabic alphabet|Abjad numerals}} | {{For|the traditional ordering of the letters of the Arabic alphabet|Abjad numerals}} | ||
{{ | {{verification|date=September 2022|reason=the article relies in large part on Omniglot, an unreliable source}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} | ||
An '''abjad''' ({{IPAc-en|'|æ|b|dʒ|æ|d|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Abjad.wav}}<ref>{{OED|abjad}}</ref> or '''abgad'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyes |first1=Philip J. |last2=Steele |first2=Philippa M. |title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts II |date=10 October 2019 |isbn=978-1-78925-092-3 |page=24 |publisher=Oxbow Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gF3JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lehmann |first=Reinhard G. |editor1-last=de Voogt |editor1-first=Alex |editor2-last=Quack |editor2-first=Joachim Friedrich |date=2012 |title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, Boston |isbn=9789004215450 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTA6MsEjkPIC&pg=PA46}}</ref>) is a [[writing system]] in which only [[consonant]]s are represented, leaving the [[vowel]] | An '''abjad''' ({{IPAc-en|'|æ|b|dʒ|æ|d|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Abjad.wav}}<ref>{{OED|abjad}}</ref> or '''abgad'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyes |first1=Philip J. |last2=Steele |first2=Philippa M. |title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts II |date=10 October 2019 |isbn=978-1-78925-092-3 |page=24 |publisher=Oxbow Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gF3JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lehmann |first=Reinhard G. |editor1-last=de Voogt |editor1-first=Alex |editor2-last=Quack |editor2-first=Joachim Friedrich |date=2012 |title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, Boston |isbn=9789004215450 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTA6MsEjkPIC&pg=PA46}}</ref>) is a [[writing system]] in which only [[consonant]]s are represented by [[Letter (alphabet)|letter signs]], leaving the [[vowel|vowels]] to be inferred by the reader (unless represented otherwise, such as by [[diacritic]]s). This contrasts with [[Alphabet|alphabets]] that provide [[grapheme]]s for both consonants and vowels. The term was introduced in 1990 by [[Peter T. Daniels]].<ref>Daniels, P. (1990). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/602899 Fundamentals of Grammatology]". ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 110(4), 727-731. {{doi|10.2307/602899}}. "We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be "alephbeth," in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to "alphabet" to be practical; so I propose to call this type an "'''abjad'''," from the Arabic word for the traditional order [{{small|Footnote: I.e., the ''alif-ba-jim'' order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order ''alif-ba-ta-tha'' is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).}}] of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category. There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the "'''neosyllabary'''" (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it "pseudo-alphabet" (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and "greater India" that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked ''a'') and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an "abugida," from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary."</ref> Other terms for the same concept include '''partial phonemic script''', '''segmentally linear defective phonographic script''', '''consonantary''', '''consonant writing''', and '''consonantal alphabet'''.<ref>Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), "Towards a typology of phonemic scripts", ''Writing Systems Research'', 9:1, 14-35, {{doi|10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239}}. "Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). "</ref> | ||
'''Impure abjads''' represent vowels with either optional [[diacritic]]s, a limited number of distinct vowel glyphs, or both. | '''Impure abjads''' represent vowels with either optional [[diacritic]]s, a limited number of distinct vowel glyphs, or both. | ||
==Etymology== | ==Etymology== | ||
The name ''abjad'' is based on the [[Arabic alphabet]]'s first | The name ''abjad'' is based on the [[Arabic alphabet]]'s first four letters in their original [[alphabetical order]] {{nowrap| {{mdash}}}} corresponding to ''ʾa'', ''b'', ''j'', and ''d'' {{nowrap|{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}}} which reflects the alphabetical order [[aleph|''ʾ''aleph]], [[Bet (letter)|bet]], [[gimel]], [[dalet]] in other consonantal [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] scripts such as [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew,]] and other [[Semitic alphabet|Semitic proto-alphabets]] classified within the family of scripts used to write [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] languages.<ref name="Overview of the Abjad numerological system"> | ||
[https://bahai-library.com/lewis_abjad_numerological_system "Overview of the Abjad numerological system"], | |||
Jonah Winters and Frank Lewis, Overview of the Abjad numerological system, Baháʾí Library Online, 1999, quote: "The word abjad is an acronym derived from the first four consonantal shapes in the Arabic alphabet -- Alif, Bá, Jim, Dál. As such abjad designates the letters of the Arabic alphabet (also known as alifbá') in the phrase hurúf al-abjad. An adjective formed from this, abjadí, means a novice at something. Nowadays the Arabic alphabet does not follow the sequence a-b-j-d, but rather the order: A-B-T-Th-J-H.-Kh-D (the basic shapes of the letters A-B-J-D without their diacritical dots do, however, occur in that order, insofar as T and Th are distinguished from B only by dots, and the H. and Kh from the J only by dots). However, the order A-B-J-D is quite ancient, insofar as the word abjad is not of Arabic origin, but comes from earlier written alphabets, perhaps from Phoenician though the sequence may be as old as Ugaritic. In any case, it certainly predates the writing down of Arabic, as can be seen by comparison of Hebrew (Aleph, Beth, Gimel, Daleth) and Greek (Alpha Beta Gamma Delta)." Accessed 2 November 2025.</ref> | |||
==Terminology== | ==Terminology== | ||
According to the formulations of [[Peter T. Daniels]],{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996}} abjads differ from [[alphabet]]s in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic [[grapheme]]s. Abjads differ from [[abugida]]s, another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is ''implied'' by [[phonology]], and where [[Diacritic|vowel marks]] exist for the system, such as [[niqqud | According to the formulations of [[Peter T. Daniels]],{{sfn|Daniels|Bright|1996}} abjads differ from [[alphabet]]s in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic [[grapheme]]s. Abjads differ from [[abugida]]s, another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is ''implied'' by [[phonology]], and where [[Diacritic|vowel marks]] exist for the system, such as [[niqqud]] for [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[harakat|ḥarakāt]] for [[Arabic]], their use is optional and not the dominant (or literate) form. Abugidas mark all vowels (other than the [[Inherent vowel|"inherent" vowel]]) with a [[diacritic]], a minor attachment to the letter, a standalone [[glyph]], or (in [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]]) by rotation of the letter. Some abugidas use a special symbol to ''suppress'' the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented. In a [[syllabary]], a grapheme denotes a complete syllable, that is, either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds. | ||
The contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because ''abjad'' is also used as a term for the Arabic numeral system. Also, it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets, in contrast to e.g. the [[Greek alphabet]], were not yet true alphabets.{{sfn|Lehmann|2011}} [[Florian Coulmas]], a critic of Daniels and of the abjad terminology, argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with "transcription systems", and that there is no reason to relegate the Hebrew, Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second-class status as an "incomplete alphabet".<ref>{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|title=Writing Systems|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=113|isbn=978-0-521-78737-6}}</ref> | The contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because ''abjad'' is also used as a term for the Arabic numeral system. Also, it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets, in contrast to e.g. the [[Greek alphabet]], were not yet true alphabets.{{sfn|Lehmann|2011}} [[Florian Coulmas]], a critic of Daniels and of the abjad terminology, argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with "transcription systems", and that there is no reason to relegate the Hebrew, Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second-class status as an "incomplete alphabet".<ref>{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|title=Writing Systems|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=113|isbn=978-0-521-78737-6}}</ref> | ||
| Line 24: | Line 26: | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
==Origins== | ==Origins and History== | ||
[[Image:Ba`alat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.10|A specimen of [[Proto-Sinaitic]] script containing a phrase which may mean 'to [[Baalat]]'. The line running from the upper left to lower right reads ''mt l b<sup>c</sup>lt''.]] | [[Image:Ba`alat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.10|A specimen of [[Proto-Sinaitic]] script containing a phrase which may mean 'to [[Baalat]]'. The line running from the upper left to lower right reads ''mt l b<sup>c</sup>lt''.]] | ||
{{See also|History of the alphabet#Descendants of the Aramaic abjad}} | {{See also|History of the alphabet#Descendants of the Aramaic abjad}} | ||
The | The [[Proto-Sinaitic script]] represents the [[History of the alphabet|earliest-known trace of alphabetic writing.]] This script is generally considered to have been developed around the [[Sinai Peninsula]] during the [[Bronze Age|Middle Bronze Age]] by speakers of an [[Canaanite language|ancient West Semitic language]] who repurposed [[Pictogram|pictographic]] elements of local [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] in order to construct a new script that represented the consonants of their own language using [[acrophony]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lam |first=Joseph |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oimp/oimp-32-visible-language-inventions-writing-ancient-middle-east-and |title=Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond |date=2015 |publisher=[[The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago]] |isbn=9781885923769 |editor-last=Woods |editor-first=Christopher |edition=2nd, revised with minor corrections |series=Oriental Institute Museum Publications No. 32 |pages=189-190 |chapter=Ch. 12. The Invention and Development of the Alphabet |quote="The hybrid nature of these earliest signs gives us clues regarding the sociohistorical context for the origins of the alphabet. On the one hand, most if not all of these earliest pictographs have plausible connections to Egyptian hieroglyphic (and perhaps hieratic) symbols, implying that the inventors were influenced at some level by Egyptian writing. On the other hand, the phonemes represented by these symbols are derived from the West Semitic (and not Egyptian) words behind the pictographs. For instance, the sign for a hand is used to denote the /k/ sound through the West Semitic word kaph for “palm” or “hand,” a word that also comes to be the name of the letter. (For comparison, the Modern Hebrew name for the corresponding letter is precisely kaph; note also the Greek letter name kappa.) This association of the letter name (kaph) with its initial phoneme (/k/) is called the acrophonic principle (acro- “topmost” + phone “voice, sound”), and the fact that it is via the Semitic vocabulary that such a principle operates suggests that the linear alphabet arose for the purpose of writing a Semitic language. In fact, it is based on this assumption that the Sinai inscriptions have been partially deciphered, 6 revealing intelligible phrases such as lbat (“for the Lady”) and rb nqbnm (“chief of the miners”)." |editor-last2=Teeter |editor-first2=Emily |editor-last3=Emberling |editor-first3=Geoff}}</ref> The Proto-Sinaitic script is thought to represent, or at least indicate the existence of, an early [[Comparative method|ancestor]] of the many later Semitic consonantal scripts which continued to develop over time into more [[Abstraction|abstract]], less [[Visualization (graphics)|visually representational]] forms, including the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician abjad]]. | ||
The Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, | The Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of [[Phonemic orthography|phonetic writing]]. Unlike other scripts, such as [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] ([[Logogram|logographic]] and [[Syllabary|syllabic]]) and [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] (logographic and consonantal), the Phoenician abjad consisted of only a few dozen symbols. Presumably, the relative simplicity of the Phoenician abjad made this script easy to learn, allowed it to gain widespread usage, and influenced how readily it was adopted or adapted into the development of other scripts by non-Phoenicians who encountered [[seafaring]] [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] merchants and their script which they brought with them as they traded throughout the ancient [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean world]] during the [[1st millennium BC|first millennium BCE]]. | ||
Phoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the widely used [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] abjad and the [[Greek alphabet]]. The Greek alphabet | During these exchanges, the Phoenician script gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the widely used [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] abjad and the [[Greek alphabet]]. The Greek alphabet was later developed into several alphabets, including [[Etruscan alphabet|Etruscan]], [[Coptic script|Coptic]], [[Cyrillic]], and [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] (via Etruscan), while Aramaic became the ancestor of many abjads and abugidas of Asia, particularly in and around India, Southeast Asia, and [[Oceania]]. | ||
Other sister scripts to Phoenician, that branched from | Other sister scripts to Phoenician, that branched from Proto-Sinaitic script are the [[South Semitic scripts]] with its two main branches; the [[Ancient North Arabian]] scripts that were used in north and central [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], until it was displaced by the [[Arabic alphabet]].<ref>Ibn Durayd, ''Ta‘līq min amāli ibn durayd,'' ed. al-Sanūsī, Muṣṭafā, Kuwait 1984, p. 227 (Arabic). The author purports that a poet from the Kinda tribe in Yemen who settled in Dūmat al-Ǧandal during the advent of Islam told of how another member of the Yemenite Kinda tribe who lived in that town taught the Arabic script to the Banū Qurayš in Mecca and that their use of the Arabic script for writing eventually took the place of ''musnad'', or what was then the Sabaean script of the kingdom of Ḥimyar: "You have exchanged the ''musnad'' of the sons of Ḥimyar / which the kings of Ḥimyar were wont to write down in books."</ref> and [[Ancient South Arabian script|Ancient South Arabian]], which evolved later into the [[Geʽez script]], still being used in [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]]. | ||
==Impure abjads== | ==Impure abjads== | ||
[[File:Arabic_Language.svg|thumb|''Al-ʻArabiyya'', meaning "Arabic": an example of the Arabic script, which is an impure abjad]] | [[File:Arabic_Language.svg|thumb|''Al-ʻArabiyya'', meaning "Arabic": an example of the Arabic script, which is an impure abjad]] | ||
Impure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators.{{sfn|Daniels|2013}} However, most | Impure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators.{{sfn|Daniels|2013}} However, most abjads, such as [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]], and [[Pahlavi alphabet|Pahlavi]], are "impure" abjads{{snd}}that is, they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes, although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants, particularly [[Approximant consonant|approximants]] that sound similar to long vowels. A "pure" abjad is exemplified (perhaps) by very early forms of ancient [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]], though at some point (at least by the 9th century BC) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called ''[[mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]''.{{sfn|Lipiński|1994}} This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. | ||
===Addition of vowels=== | ===Addition of vowels=== | ||
{{Main|Greek alphabet}} | {{Main|Greek alphabet}} | ||
In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the [[guttural consonant|guttural]] sounds represented by ''[[aleph]]'', ''[[he (letter)|he]]'', ''[[Heth (letter)|heth]]'' or ''[[ayin]]'', so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters ''[[Waw (letter)|waw]]'' and ''[[Yodh|yod]]'' were also adapted into vowel signs; along with ''he'', these were already used as ''[[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]'' in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as [[Linear B]] which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables). | In the [[9th century BC]] the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the [[guttural consonant|guttural]] sounds represented by ''[[aleph]]'', ''[[he (letter)|he]]'', ''[[Heth (letter)|heth]]'' or ''[[ayin]]'', so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters ''[[Waw (letter)|waw]]'' and ''[[Yodh|yod]]'' were also adapted into vowel signs; along with ''he'', these were already used as ''[[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]'' in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as [[Linear B]] which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables). | ||
[[Abugida]]s developed along a slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent "a" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the [[South Arabian script|South Arabian abjad]] evolved into the [[Geʽez script]] of Ethiopia between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, the [[Brāhmī script|Brāhmī abugida]] of the Indian subcontinent developed around the 3rd century BC (from the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic abjad]], it has been hypothesized). | [[Abugida]]s developed along a slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent "a" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the [[South Arabian script|South Arabian abjad]] evolved into the [[Geʽez script]] of Ethiopia between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, the [[Brāhmī script| Brāhmī abugida]] of the Indian subcontinent developed around the 3rd century BC (from the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic abjad]], it has been hypothesized). | ||
=={{anchor|Semitic abjad|Semitic abjads}}Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages== | =={{anchor|Semitic abjad|Semitic abjads}}Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages== | ||
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2024}} | {{unreferenced section|date=March 2024}} | ||
The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from [[triliteral|a root consisting of (usually) three consonants]], the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms. For instance, according to [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Modern Standard Arabic]], from the Arabic root {{lang|ar|ك‌ت‌ب}} ''K-T-B'' (to write) can be derived the forms {{lang|ar|كَتَبَ}} ''{{ | The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from [[triliteral|a root consisting of (usually) three consonants]], the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Afroasiatic languages |date=2012 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521865333 |editor-last=Frajzyngier |editor-first=Zygmunt |series=Cambridge language surveys |location=Cambridge |page=2 |chapter=Introduction |quote="Speakers of Semitic languages, which belong to the Afroasiatic phylum, developed the alphabetic writing system which, with numerous modifications, is now used in thousands of languages throughout the world. The development of the alphabetical writing system may have been facilitated by the underlying structure of verbal roots and derived nominal forms in Semitic languages, where the consonantal structure alone conveyed a great deal of semantic information." |editor-last2=Shay |editor-first2=Erin}}</ref> For instance, according to [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Modern Standard Arabic]], from the Arabic root {{lang|ar|ك‌ت‌ب}} ''K-T-B'' (to write) can be derived the forms {{lang|ar|كَتَبَ}} ''{{transl|ar|kataba}}'' (he wrote), {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتَ}} ''{{transl|ar|katabta}}'' (you (masculine singular) wrote), {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبُ}} ''{{transl|ar|yaktubu}}'' (he writes), and {{lang|ar|مَكْتَبَة}} ''{{transl|ar|maktabah}}'' (library). In most cases, the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer, allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots (especially in conjunction with [[context (language use)|context]] clues) and improving word recognition{{citation needed|date=August 2011}}{{dubious|date=August 2011}} while reading for practiced readers.<!--extremely exaggerated, there are dozens of Arabic words of different roots which are only distinguished by vowels--> | ||
== Adaptation for use as true alphabets == | == Adaptation for use as true alphabets == | ||
The Arabic abjad | {{unreferenced section|date=October 2025}} | ||
The Arabic abjad has been adapted to perform as [[alphabet|true alphabets]] when used to write several languages, including [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Swahili Ajami|Swahili]], [[Jawi script|Malay]], and [[Uyghur alphabets|Uyghur]] and historically [[Arebica|Bosnian]], [[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Arabic Afrikaans|Afrikaans]], with some letters or letter combinations being repurposed to represent vowels. The Hebrew abjad has also been adapted to write [[Jewish languages]] like [[Ladino (language)|Ladino]] and [[Yiddish]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubin |first=Aaron D. |title=Jewish Languages from A to Z |last2=Kahn |first2=Lily |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781138487284 |location=New York |page=x |chapter=Introduction |quote="Given their intimate familiarity with the Hebrew alphabet...it is not surprising that Jews very often used the Hebrew alphabet to write down whatever language they were speaking. Thus, we find Hebrew-letter texts in which the language is actually Arabic, Greek, French, Persian, or something else. All told, there are at least three dozen languages that have been written down at least once using Hebrew letters. The fact that a language was written in the Hebrew alphabet does not always mean that, when read aloud or spoken, it sounded any different from the non-Jewish variety of that language, but it does mean that on the page the language looked completely different and was recognizably Jewish. For some languages, such as Malay, Urdu, and Zulu (Fanagalo), we have only just one or some very small number of texts written in Hebrew letters. For others, such as Yiddish, Ladino, or Judeo-Arabic, we have many thousands of texts, written over a period of hundreds of years. Nevertheless, all are examples of Jews using Hebrew letters to record their language."}}</ref> | |||
==Comparative chart of abjads, extinct and extant== | ==Comparative chart of abjads, extinct and extant== | ||
| Line 75: | Line 78: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Arabic script|Arabic]]|| yes || yes || right-left || 28 || 3 || Middle East || Over 400 million people || [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Arabic script#Languages written with the Arabic script|many others]]{{sfn|Ager|2015}}|| 512 CE{{sfn|Ekhtiar|2011|p=21}}{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Nabataean Aramaic|| [[Thaana]] | | [[Arabic script|Arabic]]|| yes || yes || right-left || 28 || 3 || Middle East || Over 400 million people || [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Arabic script#Languages written with the Arabic script|many others]]{{sfn|Ager|2015}}|| 512 CE{{sfn|Ekhtiar|2011|p=21}}{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Nabataean Aramaic|| [[Thaana]] | ||
[[Hanifi Rohingya script|Hanifi Rohingya]] | |||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Syriac abjad|Syriac]] || yes || yes || right-left || 22 consonants || 3 || Middle East || [[Syriac Christianity]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]||[[Aramaic]]: [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Suret language|Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]], [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]], [[Mlaḥsô language|Mlahso]]|| data-sort-value="-0100" | {{circa| 100}} BCE{{sfn|Ager|2015}}|| Aramaic || Nabatean, Palmyran, Mandaic, Parthian, Pahlavi, Sogdian, Avestan and Manichean{{sfn|Ager|2015}} | | [[Syriac abjad|Syriac]] || yes || yes || right-left || 22 consonants || 3 || Middle East || [[Syriac Christianity]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]||[[Aramaic]]: [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Suret language|Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]], [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]], [[Mlaḥsô language|Mlahso]]|| data-sort-value="-0100" | {{circa| 100}} BCE{{sfn|Ager|2015}}|| Aramaic || Nabatean, Palmyran, Mandaic, Parthian, Pahlavi, Sogdian, Avestan and Manichean{{sfn|Ager|2015}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Hebrew abjad|Hebrew]] || yes || yes || right-left || 22 consonants + 5 final letters || 4 ||Middle East || [[Israelis]], [[Jewish diaspora]] communities, [[Second Temple period|Second Temple Judea]] ||Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Aramaic, Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Italian, [[Yiddish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]], [[Jewish languages#Classification|many others]]|| data-sort-value="-0200" | 2nd century BCE || [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]], Early Aramaic || | | [[Hebrew abjad|Hebrew]] || yes || yes || right-left || 22 consonants + 5 final letters || 4 ||Middle East || [[Israelis]], [[Jewish diaspora]] communities, [[Second Temple period| Second Temple Judea]] ||Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Aramaic, Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Italian, [[Yiddish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]], [[Jewish languages#Classification|many others]]|| data-sort-value="-0200" | 2nd century BCE || [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]], Early Aramaic || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic (Imperial)]] || no || no || right-left || 22 || 3 || Middle East || Achaemenid, Persian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires || Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew || data-sort-value="-0500" | {{circa|500}} BCE{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Phoenician || Late Hebrew, Nabataean, Syriac | | [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic (Imperial)]] || no || no || right-left || 22 || 3 || Middle East || Achaemenid, Persian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires || Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew || data-sort-value="-0500" | {{circa|500}} BCE{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Phoenician || Late Hebrew, Nabataean, Syriac | ||
| Line 86: | Line 90: | ||
| [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] || no || no || right-left || 22 || none || Middle East || Nabataean Kingdom{{sfn|Lo|2012}} ||Nabataean || data-sort-value="-0200" | 200 BCE{{sfn|Lo|2012}}|| Aramaic || Arabic | | [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] || no || no || right-left || 22 || none || Middle East || Nabataean Kingdom{{sfn|Lo|2012}} ||Nabataean || data-sort-value="-0200" | 200 BCE{{sfn|Lo|2012}}|| Aramaic || Arabic | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] || no || no || right-left, [[boustrophedon]] || 22 || none || | | [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] || no || no || right-left, [[boustrophedon]] || 22 || none || Middle East || Canaanites || Phoenician, Punic, [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] || data-sort-value="-1500" | {{circa|1500|1000}} BCE{{sfn|Ager|2015}}|| Proto-Canaanite Alphabet{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Punic (variant), Greek, Etruscan, Latin, Arabic and Hebrew | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Punic language|Punic]] || no || no || right-left || 22 || none || Carthage (Tunisia), North Africa, Mediterranean{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Punic Culture || Punic, Neo-Punic || || Phoenician<br>{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} || | | [[Punic language|Punic]] || no || no || right-left || 22 || none || Carthage (Tunisia), North Africa, Mediterranean{{sfn|Ager|2015}} || Punic Culture || Punic, Neo-Punic || || Phoenician<br>{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} || | ||
| Line 114: | Line 118: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Samaritan alphabet|Samaritan]] || yes (700 people) || no || right-left || 22 || none || Levant || Samaritans (Nablus and Holon) || Samaritan Aramaic, Samaritan Hebrew|| data-sort-value="-0100" | {{circa|100 BCE|1 CE}}|| Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet || | | [[Samaritan alphabet|Samaritan]] || yes (700 people) || no || right-left || 22 || none || Levant || Samaritans (Nablus and Holon) || Samaritan Aramaic, Samaritan Hebrew|| data-sort-value="-0100" | {{circa|100 BCE|1 CE}}|| Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Tifinagh]] || yes || no || bottom-top, right-left, left-right,|| 31 || yes || North Africa || [[Berbers]] || [[Berber languages]] || data-sort-value="-2000" | 2nd millennium BCE<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zBwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT127|title=Rock Art Studies - News of the World Volume 3|last1=Franklin|first1=Natalie R.|last2=Strecker|first2=Matthias|date=2008-08-05|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=9781782975885|pages=127|language=en}}</ref> || Phoenician, Arabic || Neo-Tifinagh | | [[Tifinagh]] || yes || no || bottom-top, right-left, left-right,|| 31 || yes || North Africa || [[Berbers]] || [[Berber languages]] || data-sort-value="-2000" | 2nd millennium BCE<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zBwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT127|title=Rock Art Studies - News of the World Volume 3|last1=Franklin|first1=Natalie R.|last2=Strecker|first2=Matthias|date=2008-08-05|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=9781782975885|pages=127|language=en}}</ref> || Phoenician, Arabic || Neo-Tifinagh | ||
| Line 124: | Line 126: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| [[Sogdian alphabet|Sogdian]] || no || no (yes in later versions)|| right-left, left-right (vertical) || 20 || 3 || parts of China (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan || Buddhists, Manichaens || Sogdian || {{circa| 400|sortable=yes}} CE|| Syriac || [[Old Uyghur alphabet]]{{sfn|Ager|2015}} | | [[Sogdian alphabet|Sogdian]] || no || no (yes in later versions)|| right-left, left-right (vertical) || 20 || 3 || parts of China (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan || Buddhists, Manichaens || Sogdian || {{circa| 400|sortable=yes}} CE|| Syriac || [[Old Uyghur alphabet]]{{sfn|Ager|2015}} | ||
|- | |||
|[[Hanifi Rohingya script|Hanifi Rohingya]] | |||
|yes | |||
|no | |||
|right-left | |||
|28 | |||
|2 | |||
|Myanmar (Rohang State) | |||
|Rohingya people | |||
|Rohingya langauge | |||
|1980s | |||
|Arabic | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|[[Thaana]] | |||
|yes | |||
|yes | |||
|right-left | |||
|24 | |||
|1 | |||
|Maldives | |||
|Maldivians | |||
|Maldivian (Dhivehi) | |||
|17th century | |||
|Arabic, | |||
Dhives Akuru | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|[[Libyco-Berber alphabet|Libyco-Berber]] | |||
|no | |||
|no | |||
|bottom-top,right left,left-right | |||
|23 | |||
|none | |||
|North Africa | |||
|[[Berbers]] | |||
|Guanche,Garamantian | |||
|c. 7th century | |||
|Tifinagh | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|[[Khwarezmian language|Chorasmian]] | |||
|no | |||
|no | |||
|right-left | |||
|19 | |||
|none | |||
|[[Khwarazm]] | |||
|Ancient Iranian peoples | |||
|[[Khwarezmian language]] | |||
|early 8th century | |||
|Sogdian | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|[[Elymaic]] | |||
|no | |||
|no | |||
|right-left | |||
|22 | |||
|1 | |||
|[[Khuzestan province]],[[Iran]] | |||
|Ancient Iranian peoples | |||
|Achaemenid,Aramaic | |||
|2nd century | |||
|Aramaic | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|[[Hatran Aramaic|Hatran]] | |||
|no | |||
|no | |||
|right-left | |||
|22 | |||
|none | |||
|Iraq | |||
|Mesopotamians | |||
|Hatran Aramaic | |||
|100 BCE | |||
|Aramaic | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|[[Manichaean script|Manichaean]] | |||
|no | |||
|no | |||
|right-left | |||
|25 | |||
|2 | |||
|Northwest China | |||
| | |||
|Middle Iranian | |||
|2nd century | |||
|Sogdian | |||
|Palmyrene | |||
|- | |||
|[[Palmyrene alphabet|Palmyrene]] | |||
|no | |||
|no | |||
|right-left | |||
|23 | |||
|none | |||
|Syria | |||
| | |||
|[[Palmyrene Aramaic]] | |||
|100 BCE | |||
|Aramaic,Manichaean | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Abecedarium]] (inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet) | |||
* [[Abjad numerals]] (Arabic alphanumeric code) | * [[Abjad numerals]] (Arabic alphanumeric code) | ||
* [[Abugida]] | * [[Abugida]] (syllable-based writing system in which consonants and vowels graphemes are visually combined, particularly prevalent among Indian and Southeast Asian scripts) | ||
* [[Disemvoweling]] | * [[Alphabet]] (set of letters used to write a given language, including distinct graphemes for both consonants and vowels) | ||
* [[Gematria]] (Hebrew | * [[Disemvoweling]] (removal of vowels from a text) | ||
* [[Numerology]] | * [[Gematria]] (numerological practice of reading a word or phrase as a number or alphanumeric code, particularly in the context of Jewish mysticism based on the text of the Hebrew Bible, but also in Greek and English versions of the Bible as well as for other significant texts) | ||
* [[Glyph]] (purposeful written mark) | |||
* [[Grapheme]] (smallest functional written unit) | |||
* [[Hieroglyph (disambiguation)|Hieroglyph]] (informal term for a [[ideogram]], [[lexigram]], [[logogram]], or [[pictogram]], often referring to a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system, but also used to describe other semi-logographic writing systems, as [[Maya script]]) | |||
* [[Logogram]] (written character that represents a semantic component of a language, such as a word or morpheme. [[Chinese characters]] as used in [[Written Chinese|Chinese]] as well as other languages are logograms, as are Egyptian hieroglyphs and characters in [[cuneiform script]]) | |||
* [[Numerology]] (esoteric study of the [[Mysticism|mystical]] properties of numbers) | |||
* [[Script]] (distinctive writing system, based on a repertoire of specific elements or symbols, or that repertoire) | |||
* [[Semitic languages]] (branch of the Afroasiatic languages) | |||
* [[Shorthand]] (constructed writing systems that are structurally abjads) | * [[Shorthand]] (constructed writing systems that are structurally abjads) | ||
* [[Syllabary]] (set of written symbols that represent the [[Syllable|syllables]] or [[Mora (linguistics)|moras]] that make up spoken words) | |||
* [[Writing system]] (convention of symbols representing language) | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| Line 140: | Line 257: | ||
{{refbegin|40em}} | {{refbegin|40em}} | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite web | ||
| title = Abjads / Consonant alphabets | | title = Abjads / Consonant alphabets | ||
| | | website = Omniglot | ||
| url = http://www.omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm | | url = http://www.omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm | ||
| first1 = Simon | | first1 = Simon | ||
| Line 149: | Line 266: | ||
}} | }} | ||
* {{cite book|last1=Daniels|first1=Peter T.|editor1-last=Owens|editor1-first=Jonathan|title=The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics| | * {{cite book | ||
| last1 = Daniels | |||
| first1 = Peter T. | |||
| editor1-last = Owens | |||
| editor1-first = Jonathan | |||
| title = | |||
The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics | |||
| url = | |||
https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_Arabic_Linguistic/idoVAAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The%20Oxford%20Handbook%20of%20Arabic%20Linguistics&pg=PP1&printsec=frontcover | |||
| date = 2013 | |||
| publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| page = 415 | |||
|chapter = The Arabic Writing system | |||
| isbn = 9780199764136 | |||
}} | }} | ||
* {{cite encyclopedia | * {{cite encyclopedia | ||
| editor1-first = Peter T. | |||
| editor1-last = Daniels | |||
| editor-link1 = Peter T. Daniels | |||
| editor2-first = William | |||
| editor2-last = Bright | |||
| title = The World's Writing Systems | |||
| publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| date = 1996 | |||
| page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/4 4] | |||
| isbn = 978-0195079937 | |||
| name-list-style = amp | |||
| url-access = registration | |||
| url = | |||
https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/4 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book | |||
| isbn = 9781588394347 | |||
| last = Ekhtiar | |||
| first = Maryam | |||
| title = | |||
Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art | |||
| publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art | |||
| location = New York | |||
| page = 21 | |||
| date = 2011 | |||
| url = | |||
https://books.google.com/books?id=vO761l9dgZwC&pg=PA21 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite journal | |||
| last = Gnanadesikan | |||
| first = Amalia E. | |||
| date = 2017 | |||
| title = | |||
Towards a Typology of Phonemic Scripts | |||
| journal = Writing Systems Research | |||
| publisher = Taylor & Francis | |||
| volume = 9 | |||
| issue = 1 | |||
| pages = 14-35 | |||
| doi = 10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book | |||
| editor1-last = Frajzyngier | |||
| editor1-first = Zygmunt | |||
| editor2-last = Shay | |||
| editor2-first = Erin | |||
| title = The Afroasiatic languages | |||
| chapter = Introduction | |||
| publisher = Cambridge University Press | |||
| series = Cambridge Language Surveys | |||
| location = Cambridge | |||
| page = 2 | |||
| date = 2012 | |||
| isbn = 9780521865333 | |||
| url = | |||
https://search.worldcat.org/search?q=bn=%229780521865333%22&qt=wikipedia | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book | |||
| last = Lam | |||
| first = Joseph | |||
| date = 2015 | |||
| chapter = | |||
Ch. 12. The Invention and Development of the Alphabet | |||
| title = | |||
Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond | |||
| editor1-last = Woods | |||
| editor1-first = Christopher | |||
| editor2-last = Teeter | |||
| editor2-first = Emily | |||
| editor3-last = Emberling | |||
| editor3-first = Geoff | |||
| series = | |||
Oriental Institute Museum Publications No. 32 | |||
| edition = | |||
2nd, revised with minor corrections | |||
| publisher = | |||
The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago | |||
| pages = 189–190 | |||
| isbn = 9781885923769 | |||
| url = https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oimp/oimp-32-visible-language-inventions-writing-ancient-middle-east-and | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book | |||
| first1 = Reinhard G. | | first1 = Reinhard G. | ||
| last1 = Lehmann | | last1 = Lehmann | ||
| | | chapter = '''Ch 2''' 27-30-22-26. How Many Letters Needs an Alphabet? The Case of Semitic | ||
| | | title = The idea of writing: Writing across borders | ||
| editor1-first = Alex | | editor1-first = Alex | ||
| editor1-last = de Voogt | | editor1-last = de Voogt | ||
| Line 181: | Line 385: | ||
| isbn = 978-9004215450 | | isbn = 978-9004215450 | ||
| name-list-style = amp | | name-list-style = amp | ||
| url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Idea_of_Writing/KTA6MsEjkPIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PP1&printsec=frontcover | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| last1 = Lipiński | |||
| first1 = Edward | |||
| title = | |||
Studies in Aramaic Inscriptions and Onomastics II | |||
| date = 1994 | |||
| publisher = Peeters Publishers | |||
| location = Leuven, Belgium | |||
|isbn = 9068316109 | |||
| pages = 29–30 | |||
| url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Studies_in_Aramaic_Inscriptions_and_Onom/gCchBkJVBggC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PP1&printsec=frontcover | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite web | |||
| title = Berber | |||
| website = Ancient Scripts | |||
| url = http://www.ancientscripts.com/berber.html | |||
| first1 = Lawrence | |||
| last1 = Lo | |||
| date = 2012 | |||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170826045645/http://www.ancientscripts.com/berber.html | |||
| archive-date = 26 August 2017 | |||
| url-status = dead | |||
| df = dmy-all | |||
}} | }} | ||
* {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| title = | |||
Overview of the Abjad numerological system | |||
| website = Báhá'i Library Online | |||
| url = | |||
https://bahai-library.com/lewis_abjad_numerological_system | |||
| first1 = Jonah | |||
| last1 = Winters | |||
| first2 = Frank | |||
| last2 = Lewis | |||
| date = 1999 | |||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006223344/https://bahai-library.com/lewis_abjad_numerological_system | |||
| archive-date = 6 October 2010 | |||
| url-status = dead | |||
| df = dmy-all | |||
}} | }} | ||
| Line 207: | Line 442: | ||
| volume = 1 | | volume = 1 | ||
| page = 28 | | page = 28 | ||
| url = | |||
https://books.google.com/books?id=Gpu8uyjN1tkC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false | |||
}} | }} | ||
| Line 212: | Line 449: | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
*[https://www. | {{Wiktionary|abjad}} | ||
* [https://bahai-library.com/lewis_abjad_numerological_system Overview of the Abjad numerological system at the Bahá'í Library Online] | |||
* [https://www.omniglot.com/writing/abjads.htm Examples of various Abjads / Consonant alphabets on Omniglot] | |||
{{Writing systems |expanded=Abjads}} | {{Writing systems |expanded=Abjads}} | ||
Latest revision as of 06:37, 18 November 2025
Template:Short description Script error: No such module "For". Template:Verification Template:Use dmy dates
An abjad (Template:IPAc-en[1] or abgad[2][3]) is a writing system in which only consonants are represented by letter signs, leaving the vowels to be inferred by the reader (unless represented otherwise, such as by diacritics). This contrasts with alphabets that provide graphemes for both consonants and vowels. The term was introduced in 1990 by Peter T. Daniels.[4] Other terms for the same concept include partial phonemic script, segmentally linear defective phonographic script, consonantary, consonant writing, and consonantal alphabet.[5]
Impure abjads represent vowels with either optional diacritics, a limited number of distinct vowel glyphs, or both.
Etymology
The name abjad is based on the Arabic alphabet's first four letters in their original alphabetical order Template:Mdash corresponding to ʾa, b, j, and d Template:HspTemplate:MdashTemplate:Hsp which reflects the alphabetical order ʾaleph, bet, gimel, dalet in other consonantal Semitic scripts such as Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Semitic proto-alphabets classified within the family of scripts used to write West Semitic languages.[6]
Terminology
According to the formulations of Peter T. Daniels,Template:Sfn abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic graphemes. Abjads differ from abugidas, another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is implied by phonology, and where vowel marks exist for the system, such as niqqud for Hebrew and ḥarakāt for Arabic, their use is optional and not the dominant (or literate) form. Abugidas mark all vowels (other than the "inherent" vowel) with a diacritic, a minor attachment to the letter, a standalone glyph, or (in Canadian Aboriginal syllabics) by rotation of the letter. Some abugidas use a special symbol to suppress the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented. In a syllabary, a grapheme denotes a complete syllable, that is, either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds.
The contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because abjad is also used as a term for the Arabic numeral system. Also, it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets, in contrast to e.g. the Greek alphabet, were not yet true alphabets.Template:Sfn Florian Coulmas, a critic of Daniels and of the abjad terminology, argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with "transcription systems", and that there is no reason to relegate the Hebrew, Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second-class status as an "incomplete alphabet".[7] However, Daniels's terminology has found acceptance in the linguistic community.[8][9][10]
Origins and History
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
The Proto-Sinaitic script represents the earliest-known trace of alphabetic writing. This script is generally considered to have been developed around the Sinai Peninsula during the Middle Bronze Age by speakers of an ancient West Semitic language who repurposed pictographic elements of local Egyptian hieroglyphs in order to construct a new script that represented the consonants of their own language using acrophony.[11] The Proto-Sinaitic script is thought to represent, or at least indicate the existence of, an early ancestor of the many later Semitic consonantal scripts which continued to develop over time into more abstract, less visually representational forms, including the Phoenician abjad.
The Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing. Unlike other scripts, such as Mesopotamian cuneiform (logographic and syllabic) and Egyptian hieroglyphs (logographic and consonantal), the Phoenician abjad consisted of only a few dozen symbols. Presumably, the relative simplicity of the Phoenician abjad made this script easy to learn, allowed it to gain widespread usage, and influenced how readily it was adopted or adapted into the development of other scripts by non-Phoenicians who encountered seafaring Phoenician merchants and their script which they brought with them as they traded throughout the ancient Mediterranean world during the first millennium BCE.
During these exchanges, the Phoenician script gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the widely used Aramaic abjad and the Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet was later developed into several alphabets, including Etruscan, Coptic, Cyrillic, and Latin (via Etruscan), while Aramaic became the ancestor of many abjads and abugidas of Asia, particularly in and around India, Southeast Asia, and Oceania.
Other sister scripts to Phoenician, that branched from Proto-Sinaitic script are the South Semitic scripts with its two main branches; the Ancient North Arabian scripts that were used in north and central Arabia, until it was displaced by the Arabic alphabet.[12] and Ancient South Arabian, which evolved later into the Geʽez script, still being used in Eritrea and Ethiopia.
Impure abjads
Impure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators.Template:Sfn However, most abjads, such as Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Pahlavi, are "impure" abjadsTemplate:Sndthat is, they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes, although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants, particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels. A "pure" abjad is exemplified (perhaps) by very early forms of ancient Phoenician, though at some point (at least by the 9th century BC) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis.Template:Sfn This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times.
Addition of vowels
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin, so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters waw and yod were also adapted into vowel signs; along with he, these were already used as matres lectionis in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as Linear B which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables).
Abugidas developed along a slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent "a" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the South Arabian abjad evolved into the Geʽez script of Ethiopia between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, the Brāhmī abugida of the Indian subcontinent developed around the 3rd century BC (from the Aramaic abjad, it has been hypothesized).
Script error: No such module "anchor".Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages
Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the morphological structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from a root consisting of (usually) three consonants, the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms.[13] For instance, according to Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, from the Arabic root Script error: No such module "Lang". K-T-B (to write) can be derived the forms Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Transl (he wrote), Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Transl (you (masculine singular) wrote), Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Transl (he writes), and Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Transl (library). In most cases, the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer, allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots (especially in conjunction with context clues) and improving word recognitionScript error: No such module "Unsubst".Script error: No such module "Unsubst". while reading for practiced readers.
Adaptation for use as true alphabets
Script error: No such module "Unsubst". The Arabic abjad has been adapted to perform as true alphabets when used to write several languages, including Kurdish, Swahili, Malay, and Uyghur and historically Bosnian, Mozarabic, Aragonese, Portuguese, Spanish and Afrikaans, with some letters or letter combinations being repurposed to represent vowels. The Hebrew abjad has also been adapted to write Jewish languages like Ladino and Yiddish.[14]
Comparative chart of abjads, extinct and extant
| Name | In use | Cursive | Direction | # of letters | Matres lectionis | Area of origin | Used by | Languages | Time period (age) | Influenced by | Writing systems influenced |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic | yes | yes | right-left | 28 | 3 | Middle East | Over 400 million people | Arabic, Kashmiri, Persian, Pashto, Uyghur, Kurdish, Urdu, many othersTemplate:Sfn | 512 CETemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn | Nabataean Aramaic | Thaana |
| Syriac | yes | yes | right-left | 22 consonants | 3 | Middle East | Syriac Christianity, Assyrians | Aramaic: Syriac, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo, Mlahso | Template:Circa BCETemplate:Sfn | Aramaic | Nabatean, Palmyran, Mandaic, Parthian, Pahlavi, Sogdian, Avestan and ManicheanTemplate:Sfn |
| Hebrew | yes | yes | right-left | 22 consonants + 5 final letters | 4 | Middle East | Israelis, Jewish diaspora communities, Second Temple Judea | Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Aramaic, Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Italian, Yiddish, Ladino, many others | 2nd century BCE | Paleo-Hebrew, Early Aramaic | |
| Aramaic (Imperial) | no | no | right-left | 22 | 3 | Middle East | Achaemenid, Persian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires | Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew | Template:Circa BCETemplate:Sfn | Phoenician | Late Hebrew, Nabataean, Syriac |
| Aramaic (Early) | no | no | right-left | 22 | none | Middle East | Various Semitic Peoples | Template:Circa BCE Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
Phoenician | Hebrew, Imperial Aramaic.Template:Sfn | |
| Nabataean | no | no | right-left | 22 | none | Middle East | Nabataean KingdomTemplate:Sfn | Nabataean | 200 BCETemplate:Sfn | Aramaic | Arabic |
| Phoenician | no | no | right-left, boustrophedon | 22 | none | Middle East | Canaanites | Phoenician, Punic, Hebrew | Template:Circa BCETemplate:Sfn | Proto-Canaanite AlphabetTemplate:Sfn | Punic (variant), Greek, Etruscan, Latin, Arabic and Hebrew |
| Punic | no | no | right-left | 22 | none | Carthage (Tunisia), North Africa, MediterraneanTemplate:Sfn | Punic Culture | Punic, Neo-Punic | Phoenician Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
||
| Ancient North Arabian | no | no | right-left | 29 | yes | Arabian Peninsula | Northern Arabians | Old Arabic,Ancient North Arabian languages | 8th century BCE - 4th century CE | Proto-Sinaitic | |
| Ancient South Arabian | no | yes (Zabūr - cursive form of the South Arabian script) | right-left, boustrophedon | 29 | yes | South-Arabia (Yemen) | D'mt Kingdom | Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, Semitic, Cushitic, Nilo-Saharan Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
900 BCE Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
Proto-Sinaitic | Geʽez (Ethiopia and Eritrea) |
| Sabaean | no | no | right-left, boustrophedon | 29 | none | Southern Arabia (Sheba) | Southern Arabians | Sabaean | Template:Circa BCETemplate:Sfn | ByblosTemplate:Sfn | Ethiopic (Eritrea & Ethiopia)Template:Sfn |
| Parthian | no | no | right-left | 22 | yes | Parthia (modern-day equivalent of Northeastern Iran, Southern Turkmenistan and Northwest Afghanistan)Template:Sfn | Parthian & Sassanian periods of Persian EmpireTemplate:Sfn | Parthian | Template:Circa BCETemplate:Sfn | Aramaic | |
| Ugaritic | no | yes | left-right | 30 | none, 3 characters for gs+vowel | Ugarit (modern-day Northern Syria) | Ugarites | Ugaritic, Hurrian | Template:Circa BCETemplate:Sfn | Proto-Sinaitic | |
| Proto-Sinaitic, Proto-Canaanite | no | no | left-right | 24 | none | Egypt, Sinai, Canaan | Canaanites | Canaanite | Template:Circa BCE | In conjunction with Egyptian Hieroglyphs Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
Phoenician, Hebrew |
| Samaritan | yes (700 people) | no | right-left | 22 | none | Levant | Samaritans (Nablus and Holon) | Samaritan Aramaic, Samaritan Hebrew | Template:Circa | Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet | |
| Tifinagh | yes | no | bottom-top, right-left, left-right, | 31 | yes | North Africa | Berbers | Berber languages | 2nd millennium BCE[15] | Phoenician, Arabic | Neo-Tifinagh |
| Middle Persian, (Pahlavi) | no | no | right-left | 22 | 3 | Middle East | Sassanian Empire | Pahlavi, Middle Persian | Template:Circa | Aramaic | Psalter, AvestanTemplate:Sfn |
| Psalter Pahlavi | no | yes | right-left | 21 | yes | Northwestern ChinaTemplate:Sfn | Persian Script for Paper WritingTemplate:Sfn | Template:Circa CE[16] | Syriac Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
||
| Sogdian | no | no (yes in later versions) | right-left, left-right (vertical) | 20 | 3 | parts of China (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan | Buddhists, Manichaens | Sogdian | Template:Circa CE | Syriac | Old Uyghur alphabetTemplate:Sfn |
| Hanifi Rohingya | yes | no | right-left | 28 | 2 | Myanmar (Rohang State) | Rohingya people | Rohingya langauge | 1980s | Arabic | |
| Thaana | yes | yes | right-left | 24 | 1 | Maldives | Maldivians | Maldivian (Dhivehi) | 17th century | Arabic,
Dhives Akuru |
|
| Libyco-Berber | no | no | bottom-top,right left,left-right | 23 | none | North Africa | Berbers | Guanche,Garamantian | c. 7th century | Tifinagh | |
| Chorasmian | no | no | right-left | 19 | none | Khwarazm | Ancient Iranian peoples | Khwarezmian language | early 8th century | Sogdian | |
| Elymaic | no | no | right-left | 22 | 1 | Khuzestan province,Iran | Ancient Iranian peoples | Achaemenid,Aramaic | 2nd century | Aramaic | |
| Hatran | no | no | right-left | 22 | none | Iraq | Mesopotamians | Hatran Aramaic | 100 BCE | Aramaic | |
| Manichaean | no | no | right-left | 25 | 2 | Northwest China | Middle Iranian | 2nd century | Sogdian | Palmyrene | |
| Palmyrene | no | no | right-left | 23 | none | Syria | Palmyrene Aramaic | 100 BCE | Aramaic,Manichaean |
See also
- Abecedarium (inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet)
- Abjad numerals (Arabic alphanumeric code)
- Abugida (syllable-based writing system in which consonants and vowels graphemes are visually combined, particularly prevalent among Indian and Southeast Asian scripts)
- Alphabet (set of letters used to write a given language, including distinct graphemes for both consonants and vowels)
- Disemvoweling (removal of vowels from a text)
- Gematria (numerological practice of reading a word or phrase as a number or alphanumeric code, particularly in the context of Jewish mysticism based on the text of the Hebrew Bible, but also in Greek and English versions of the Bible as well as for other significant texts)
- Glyph (purposeful written mark)
- Grapheme (smallest functional written unit)
- Hieroglyph (informal term for a ideogram, lexigram, logogram, or pictogram, often referring to a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system, but also used to describe other semi-logographic writing systems, as Maya script)
- Logogram (written character that represents a semantic component of a language, such as a word or morpheme. Chinese characters as used in Chinese as well as other languages are logograms, as are Egyptian hieroglyphs and characters in cuneiform script)
- Numerology (esoteric study of the mystical properties of numbers)
- Script (distinctive writing system, based on a repertoire of specific elements or symbols, or that repertoire)
- Semitic languages (branch of the Afroasiatic languages)
- Shorthand (constructed writing systems that are structurally abjads)
- Syllabary (set of written symbols that represent the syllables or moras that make up spoken words)
- Writing system (convention of symbols representing language)
References
Sources
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
External links
Template:Writing systems Template:List of writing systems
- ↑ Template:OED
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Daniels, P. (1990). "Fundamentals of Grammatology". Journal of the American Oriental Society, 110(4), 727-731. Script error: No such module "doi".. "We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be "alephbeth," in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to "alphabet" to be practical; so I propose to call this type an "abjad," from the Arabic word for the traditional order [Footnote: I.e., the alif-ba-jim order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order alif-ba-ta-tha is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".] of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category. There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the "neosyllabary" (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it "pseudo-alphabet" (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and "greater India" that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked a) and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an "abugida," from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary."
- ↑ Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), "Towards a typology of phonemic scripts", Writing Systems Research, 9:1, 14-35, Script error: No such module "doi".. "Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). "
- ↑ "Overview of the Abjad numerological system", Jonah Winters and Frank Lewis, Overview of the Abjad numerological system, Baháʾí Library Online, 1999, quote: "The word abjad is an acronym derived from the first four consonantal shapes in the Arabic alphabet -- Alif, Bá, Jim, Dál. As such abjad designates the letters of the Arabic alphabet (also known as alifbá') in the phrase hurúf al-abjad. An adjective formed from this, abjadí, means a novice at something. Nowadays the Arabic alphabet does not follow the sequence a-b-j-d, but rather the order: A-B-T-Th-J-H.-Kh-D (the basic shapes of the letters A-B-J-D without their diacritical dots do, however, occur in that order, insofar as T and Th are distinguished from B only by dots, and the H. and Kh from the J only by dots). However, the order A-B-J-D is quite ancient, insofar as the word abjad is not of Arabic origin, but comes from earlier written alphabets, perhaps from Phoenician though the sequence may be as old as Ugaritic. In any case, it certainly predates the writing down of Arabic, as can be seen by comparison of Hebrew (Aleph, Beth, Gimel, Daleth) and Greek (Alpha Beta Gamma Delta)." Accessed 2 November 2025.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ "Abjads / Consonant alphabets", Omniglot.com, 2009, quote: "Abjads, or consonant alphabets, represent consonants only, or consonants plus some vowels. Full vowel indication (vocalisation) can be added, usually by means of diacritics, but this is not usually done." Accessed 22 May 2009.
- ↑ Rogers, Henry (2005): Writing systems: a linguistic approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23464-0, ISBN 978-0-631-23464-7. See esp. Chap. 7, pp. 115ff.
- ↑ Schone, Patrick (2006): "Low-resource autodiacritization of abjads for speech keyword search", In INTERSPEECH-2006, paper 1412-Mon3FoP.13.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Ibn Durayd, Ta‘līq min amāli ibn durayd, ed. al-Sanūsī, Muṣṭafā, Kuwait 1984, p. 227 (Arabic). The author purports that a poet from the Kinda tribe in Yemen who settled in Dūmat al-Ǧandal during the advent of Islam told of how another member of the Yemenite Kinda tribe who lived in that town taught the Arabic script to the Banū Qurayš in Mecca and that their use of the Arabic script for writing eventually took the place of musnad, or what was then the Sabaean script of the kingdom of Ḥimyar: "You have exchanged the musnad of the sons of Ḥimyar / which the kings of Ḥimyar were wont to write down in books."
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".