Taos phonology

Template:IPA notice Taos is a Tanoan language spoken by several hundred people in New Mexico, in the United States. The main description of its phonology was contributed by George L. Trager in a (pre-generative) structuralist framework. Earlier considerations of the phonetics-phonology were by John P. Harrington and Jaime de Angulo. Trager's first account was in Template:Harvp based on fieldwork 1935-1937, which was then substantially revised in Template:Harvp (due in part to the inclusion of juncture phonemes and newly collected data in 1947 in the analysis). The description below takes Template:Harvp as the main point of departure and notes where this differs from the analysis of Template:Harvp. Harrington's description (although from a different period) is more similar to Template:Harvp. Certain comments from a generative perspective are noted in a comparative work Template:Harvp.

Segments

The two following sections detail phonetic information about Taos phonological segments (i.e., consonants and vowels), as well as their phonological patterning in morphophonemic alternations.

Consonants

Template:Harvp lists 27 consonants (25 native) for Taos, although in his later analysis he posited 18 consonants.

		Bilabial	Dental		Alveolar	Palatal	Velar		Glottal
			central	lateral			plain	labial
Stop	voiced	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link				Template:IPA link
	unaspirated	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	aspirated	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
	ejective	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link			Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Fricative		(Template:IPA link)		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Nasal		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Flap					(Template:IPA link)
Approximant				Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link

Words exemplifying Taos consonants are in the table below:

Consonant	Word-initial position			Word-medial position
	IPA	Trager	Gloss	IPA	Trager	Gloss
		bòyi’ína	'valley'		į́ęsiabą	'he kicked'
		pá	'he made'		cùpána	'judge' (noun)
		phùyu’úna	'fly' (noun)		kȕphúone	'act of dropping'
		p’óna	'moon'		wȍp’ə́oti	'he didn't lose it'
		mą́kuna	'grandchild'		kwę̀mų́na	'carpenter's apron'
	–				ȍdénemą	'jaw'
		tȕculóna	'hummingbird'		cìatúną	'legging'
		thį̀ę’éna	'stomach'		tə́otho	'Taos pueblo'
		t’áwaną	'wheel'		mą̂t’emą	'he hit it'
		ną̀lénemą	'aspen'		kə̀nénemą	'cradle'
		łȉwéna	'woman, wife'		łùłi’ína	'old man'
		lìlúna	'chicken'		kòléna	'wolf'
		sə́onena	'man, husband'		mę̀sotu’úna	'church'
		cùlo’óna	'dog'		p’ȍcíane	'ice'
		c’óne	'liver'		mą̏c’élena	'fingernail'
		yų́na	'this'		kàyúna	'maternal aunt'
		gosulínene	'gasoline'		hí’ąngą	'why, because'
		kána	'mother'		cìbi’kína	'robin'
		k’ə́onemą	'neck'		p’ȍk’úowoną	'fir, spruce'
		xónemą	'arm'		łòxóyna	'lip'
		kwóna	'axe'		łǫ̀kwìawálmą	'he was stronger'
		kw’àyána	'magpie'		p’ȍtukw’ilóna	'mint'
		xwílena	'bow'		tùxwána	'fox'
		wa̋mą	'be, have'		łòwatúną	'chief's cane'
		íałona	'willow'		p’ȍ’ǫ́yona	'spider'
		hǫ́luma	'lung'		pùohóna	'ball'

Consonant phonetics and allophony

• Voiceless stops are very slightly aspirated.
• Aspirated stops are strongly aspirated.
• The ejectives are weakly glottalized.
• The dental consonants are phonetically denti-alveolar.
• In some speakers, may have an assimilated bilabial fricative : . This can also vary with a deleted stop closure. Thus, has the following free variation: . Examples:

	('daughter')	>
	('glass')	>

• The fricative only occurs in Spanish loanwords in a syllable-initial cluster and may be labio-dental or bilabial : ('fruit' from fruta) as . It is briefly mentioned in Template:Harvp and ultimately excluded from the phonological description.
• The stops are voiced intervocalically. At the beginning of words, they only occur in loanwords (as in 'glass tumbler' from vaso and 'rooster' from gallo) where Trager describes them as "less voiced". Syllable-finally, they are voiceless, have no audible release, and have a long closure duration :

('and')

>

• There is a neutralization of the contrast between the labialized consonants and their non-labial counterparts before the (labial) high back vowels where only phonetically labialized velars occur. In this environment, Trager assumes these are non-labials which are phonetically labialized due to assimilation (e.g. is , is , etc.):

	('skunk')	>
	('sheep')	>
	('and then')	>

• Fricative has weak frication, unlike the stronger frication found in other languages (such as, the closely related Picuris language).
• Voiceless is phonetically an affricate and usually post-alveolar . Taos is somewhat more palatal than English .Template:Sfnb However, can freely vary with a more forward articulation ranging from post-alveolar to alveolar: . Some speakers tend to have more forward articulations before the vowels while ejective is before high vowels and elsewhere although there is some amount of free variation between these realizations. Examples:

	('he caught')	>
	('blue, green')	>
	('mouse')	>
	('shirt')	>
	('yeast')	>
	('doll')	>
	('coyote')	>
	('be new')	>
	('ankle')	>
	('bluejay')	>

• Fricative tends to have a post-alveolar allophone before high vowels (especially the high front vowel ):

	('cow')	>
	('bluebird')	>

• The flap is a borrowed phoneme (< Spanish ) that occurs in loanwords from New Mexican Spanish that were borrowed relatively recently as in

	('ranch')	(from rancho)
	('pear')	(from pera)
	('vinegar')	(from vinagre)

• The lateral liquid is velarized at the end of syllables:

('be strong')

>

• The labial glide is labio-velar.
• The glides are phonetically short high vowels no closer than Taos high vowels, which are very close as well. When they occur after nasal vowels, they are nasalized: .

Consonant alternations

The stem-initial consonant in many verb stems has alternates (i.e. shows consonantal ablaut) between two different forms in what Trager calls the "basic" stem and the "stative" stem. The "basic" stem is used for the preterit active verb form while the "stative" stem is used for the resultative stative verb-forms and deverbal nouns.

Basic Initial	Stative Initial	Example
		('he lost it') ('it is lost')
		('he helped him') ('he was helped')
		('he tied it') ('it is tied')
		('he ate it') ('it was eaten')
		('he did') ('it is done')
		('he took it') ('it has been taken')
		('he brought it') ('it has been brought')
		('he arrived') ('arrival')
		('he took it off') ('it has been taken off')
		('he walked') ('walk' [noun])

A different set of alternations are what Trager calls "internal" ablaut. The last consonant of the verb stem alternates between two different consonants in the basic stem form and the negative stem form.

Basic Consonant	Negative Consonant	Example
		('he kicked') ('he didn't kick')
		('he lost it') ('he didn't lose it')
		('he accepted') ('he didn't accept')
		('he sat down') ('he didn't sit down')
		('he hit') ('he didn't hit')
		('he beat') ('he didn't beat')

Vowels

Monophthongs

Taos has six vowels with three contrastive vowel heights and two degrees of vowel backness.

Phonemic vowels

	Front		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Mid	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Open	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link

Five of the vowels have an oral-nasal contrast, which persists even before a nasal consonant coda (i.e. the syllables and contrast, where C = any consonant, V = any vowel, N = any nasal consonant). For example, the Taos has a syllable before as well as syllable before as in the words ('maternal aunt') and ('this').

Morphemes exemplifying Taos monophthongs are in the table below:

Vowel	IPA	Gloss		Vowel	IPA	Gloss
		'what'				'he met'
		'he stopped'				'who'
		(duoplural noun suffix)				'hunt' (verb)
		'you'
		'he made'				'he danced'
		'yes'				'blow'

Monophthong phonetics and allophony

• Vowels have lowered variants in closed syllables and when unstressed. The in closed syllables is somewhat lower than the in unstressed syllables.

	('to stand')	>		(closed syllable)
	('weapon')	>		(unstressed)
	('his-garment-around')	>		(closed syllable)
	('ladder')	>		(unstressed)

• The vowel has phonetic "inner rounding". The vowel has a variant with very narrow lip rounding before :

	('rain')	>
	('to love' [reflexive possessive])	>
	('it was being burned')	>

• The mid vowels may be phonetically somewhat centralized. Front is typically slightly centered in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Back ranges from back to central and is when unstressed. Although both are mid, (upper-mid) is phonetically higher than which is phonetically lower-mid . In contrast to the high back vowel , mid is unrounded. Unlike the other vowels, has no nasal counterpart. Examples:

	('eagles')	>
	('it was squeezed')	>
	('star')	>

• The oral mid-front vowel predominantly occurs in suffixes while nasalized is relatively common in stems. Nasalized is phonetically lower than its oral counterpart: :

('act of cutting')

>

• Oral is phonetically front and is uncommon in syllables with primary stress. Nasalized is phonetically a central vowel ; it is lower than and not as far back as . Before a coda, is very similar to the centralized before syllable-final both of which are similar to the of English. Examples:

	('he won')	>
	('soil')	>
	('his friends')	>
	('my house')	>

• The vowel has a slightly rounded variant after labials and also before and syllable-final . Before syllable-final nasals and the glide , this vowel is centralized: (before ), (before ). Nasalized is phonetically slightly rounded and higher than its oral counterpart: . Examples:

	('pumpkin')	>
	('peach')	>
	('long time ago')	>
	('he ran')	>
	('skirt')	>
	('he didn't urinate')	>
	('coffee')	>
	('governor of pueblo')	>
	('he sees me')	>
	('colt')	>
	('camp" (noun)	>
	('person')	>
	('he found')	>

The allophonic variation of the vowels detailed above are summarized in the following chart:

Phonetic vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	=   =		=   =
Near-close	=   =		=   =
Close-mid		=	=   =
Open-mid	=	=   =	=
Open	=   =	=	=

• Vowel length allophony:
  1. The duration of vowels varies according to stress. Vowels in syllables with primary stress are relatively long and somewhat shorter in syllables with secondary stress. Unstressed syllables have short vowels. For example, the word ('boat') is with the primary-stressed syllable having a long vowel, the secondary-stressed syllable having a less long vowel and the unstressed having a short vowel.
  2. The presence of a consonant coda also affects vowel length. Vowels are short in closed syllables (but not as short as unstressed syllables) and long in open syllables.
  3. There is also an interaction between tone and vowel length. Vowels with a mid tone are long while with a low tone are "pulsated". Trager mentions further interaction but does not report the details.

Diphthongs

In addition to these monophthongs, Taos has five (native) vowel clusters (i.e. diphthongs) that can function as syllable nuclei and are approximately the same duration as the single vowels:

Unlike diphthongs in several other languages, each component of the vowel cluster has an equal prominence and duration (i.e. there are no offglides or onglides). The cluster is rare in general; the clusters are uncommon in unstressed syllables. Additionally, the vowel cluster

is found in less-assimilated Spanish loanwords. Examples of the clusters are below:

Cluster	IPA	Gloss
		'step-relation' (suffix) 'step-daughter'
		'race'
		'paternal aunt'
		'the wind did not blow'
		'he is gathering it'
		'frying pans'

The phonetics of the vowel clusters vary in their length and also their quality according to stress, tone, and position syllable structure. The clusters have vowel components of equal length in stressed closed syllables (either primary or medial stress) with mid tone. However, in unstressed syllables and in low-toned syllables (with either primary or medial stress) the first vowel in the cluster is more prominent; in high-toned syllables and in open syllables with primary stress and mid tone, the second vowel is more prominent. The nasal cluster has equally prominent vowels in primary-stressed mid-toned syllables while in closed syllables and unstressed the second vowel is extremely short. The cluster always has the first element more prominent than the second vowel.

For the quality differences, the vowel in cluster is raised toward . When short, the vowel in cluster is raised toward . The vowel in cluster is rounded to and is more rounded than the allophone of monophthong adjacent to labials. These allophones are summarized in the table below:

Cluster	Allophone	Environment
		stressed & mid tone & closed
		low tone or unstressed
		high tone or primary stress & mid tone & open
		stressed & mid tone
		low tone or unstressed
		high tone or primary stress & mid tone & open
		primary stress
		closed or unstressed
		stressed & mid tone
		low tone or unstressed
		high tone or primary stress & mid tone & open
		all environments

The monophthongs can be followed by high front and high back offglides, but these are analyzed as glide consonants in a coda position. Trager notes that in these sequences the glides are not as prominent as the vowel nuclei but that the difference is not very marked, and, in fact, Template:Harvp describes these as diphthongs on par with Trager's "vowel clusters". The following vowel + glide sequences are reported in Template:Harvp:

Vowel nucleus	offglide	offglide		Vowel nucleus	offglide	offglide
	–					–
	–					–
	–	–
		–
						–

Reduplicative patterning

Noun stems that end in a vowel have a suffixation-reduplication process in absolute forms that attaches a glottal stop and a reduplicant consisting of a reduplicated stem-final vowel to the noun stem (which is, then, followed by an inflectional suffix):

STEM- + -- + -SUFFIX   (where V = a reduplicated vowel)

If the stem-final vowel is an oral vowel, the reduplicated vowel is exactly the same as the stem vowel:

	('bracelet')	(< )
	('bird')	(< )
	('cake')	(< )
	('fish')	(< )
	('skirts')	(< )
	('bat')	(< )

However, if the stem-final vowel is nasal, the nasality is not copied in the reduplicant — that is, the nasal vowel will be reduplicated as that vowel's oral counterpart:

	('earth" (duoplural)	(< )
	('question')	(< )
	('youth')	(< )

In stems that end in a vowel cluster, only the second vowel of the cluster is reduplicated:

('corn (duoplural)')

(< )

And a nasal cluster has a reduplicated and denasalized second vowel:

('bed')

(< )

Vowel deletion

Taos shares with other languages in the region (Pueblo linguistic area) an areal feature of vowel elision at the end of words. When a word ends in a final vowel, the vowel may be deleted resulting in a consonant final word. This is especially common with final and occasionally with final . The elision is also very common when the final is preceded by a sonorant consonant such as , etc.

For example, the 3rd person pronoun particle

('he, she, it, they')

is often phonetically

with syllable reduction and a resulting closed syllable. Other examples include

	('hundred')	>
	('thousand')	>
	('and')	>
	('why, because')	>

In the words , the voiced stops become phonetically voiceless, unreleased, and have long durations when word-final in addition to the loss of the final vowel.

Vowel elision is common in connected speech. Template:Harvp notes that the elision may affect stress patterns but that this requires further research. Template:Harvp states that the deletion of final after a sonorant and the retention of is in free variation but may be related to speaking speed and syntax although the details are still unknown.

Prosody

Stress

Trager analyzes Taos as having three degrees of stress:

• primary
• secondary
• unstressed

Trager describes Taos stress in terms of loudness; however, he also notes in several places where stress has effects on vowel length and vowel quality.

All words must have a single primary stress. Polysyllabic words can, in addition to the syllable with primary stress, have syllables with secondary stress, unstressed syllables, or a combination of both unstressed and secondarily-stressed syllables.

Template:Harvp states that the primary and secondary stress levels are in complementary distribution in low-toned and high-toned syllables. However, his later analysis rejects this.

When two morphemes both with a primary stress in each morpheme are concatenated together, the first primary stress in the leftmost morpheme becomes a secondary stress (while the rightmost morpheme retains the primary stress).

Tone

Taos has three tones:

• high (symbol: acute accent ´)
• mid (symbol: macron ¯)
• low (symbol: grave accent `)

The tonal system is however marginal. Trager describes the tones as being distinguished by pitch differences. The mid tone is by the most commonly occurring tone; high tone is limited to a few stems and suffixes; the low tone is relatively common in stem syllables. The high tone is described as "higher and sharper" than the mid tone while the low tone is "distinctly lower and drawling". Many words are distinguished solely by tonal differences as in the following minimal pairs which demonstrate the contrast between the mid tone and the low tone in stressed syllables:

	('pass by')				('one')
	('suck')				('it is real')

There is no tonal contrast in unstressed syllables, which have only phonetic mid tones. Thus, the word ('plum') has the unstressed syllables and which have phonetic mid tones resulting in a phonetic form of .

Template:Harvp initially found the stress level to be predictable in syllables with high and low tones; however, Template:Harvp finds this to be in error with the addition of newly collected data and a different theoretical outlook. (See stress section above.)

In his final historical notes, Template:Harvp suggests that in proto-Taos (or in proto-Tiwa) there may originally have been only a stress system and a contrast of vowel length which later developed into the present tonal-stress system and lost the vowel length contrasts.

Syllables and phonotactics

The simplest syllable in Taos consists of a single consonant in the onset (i.e. beginning consonant) followed by a single vowel nucleus, i.e. a CV syllable. An onset and nucleus are obligatory in every syllable. Complex onsets consisting of a two-consonant cluster (CC) are found only in loanwords borrowed from New Mexican Spanish. The nucleus can have optionally two vowels in vowel clusters (V or VV). The syllable coda (i.e. the final consonants) is optional and can consist of up to two consonants (C or CC). In other words, the following are possible syllable types in Taos: CV, CVV, CVC, CVVC, CVCC (and in loanwords also: CCV, CCVV, CCVC, CCVVC, CCVCC, CCVVCC). This can be succinctly represented in the following (where optional segments are enclosed in parentheses):

C1 (C2)V1(V₂)(C3)(C4<) + Tone

Additionally, every syllable has a tone associated with it. The number of possible syllables occurring in Taos is greatly limited by a number of phonotactic constraints.

A further point concerns Trager's analysis of Taos coda syllables: CC clusters occurring in codas are only possible as a result of vowel elision, which is often apocope. For example, ('why') has a CV.CVC.CV syllable structure, but after the elision of the final the resulting has a CV.CVCC structure with a CC cluster in the coda of the last syllable.

Onsets

A single onset C1 can be filled by any Taos consonant (except the borrowed ) — that is, are possible onsets. The onset , and the onsets word-initially, are only found in Spanish borrowings. In a loanword two-consonant C1C<2 cluster, C can be filled only by voiceless stops while C2 can be filled only by in the following combinations:

	C2
C1
		–

Of the onsets, can only occur as onsets (and not as codas).

Rimes

Within the syllable rime, any single Taos vowel — — may occur in the nucleus. In complex nuclei consisting of vowel clusters, the following combinations are possible:

Vowel nucleus clusters

	Final component
Initial component
		–		–
	–		–	–
	†	–	–
	–	–	–

† - only in loanwords

The cluster was found only in a single word ('frying pan' from hypothetical Spanish *puela probably from French poêle).

A subset of Taos consonants consisting of voiced stops and sonorants — — can occur in coda C₄ position. There is a restriction that high vowels cannot be followed by a homorganic glide (i.e., do not occur). Not all VC combinations are attested. The attested sequences of V + glide are listed in the vowel diphthong section above. Additionally, may appear in coda position in loanwords.

In complex two-consonant C₃C₄ codas, Template:Harvp states that the final consonant C₄ can consist of a voiced stop and be preceded by a consonant C₃ consisting of a non-liquid sonorant . However, Template:Harvp states that the following are the only attested coda clusters:

Trager does not discuss the combinatory possibilities between segments and tones, although he does for stress and tone.

Loanword phonology

Template:Harvp indicates the type of phonetic/phonological changes that New Mexican Spanish loanwords undergo when being adapted to the Taos language. Different degrees of nativization occur in Spanish loanwords: earlier borrowings have greater differences while later borrowings (borrowed by speakers who are probably increasingly bilingual) have much greater similarity with the Spanish forms. The chart below lists some of the correspondences. The inflected nouns in the table are in the absolute singular form with the inflectional suffix and any reduplicant separated from the initial noun stem with hyphens.

New Mexican Spanish phoneme(s)	Taos phoneme(s)	Example
		Taos		Spanish
		word	gloss
(initial)			'pocket'	< bolsa
(intervocalic)			'Thursday'	< jueves
(initial)			'week'	< domingo
(intervocalic)			'Saturday'	< sábado
	(after Taos )		'fork'	< tenedor
			'one's child's godmother'	< comadre
			'pin'	< fistol
	(initial)		'rug'	< jerga
	(intervocalic)		'the mother Virgin'	< virgen
()			'Thursday'	< jueves
			'bed spring'	< sopanda
			'week'	< domingo
			'canyon'	< cañón
			'king'	< rey
			'donkey'	< burro
			'hammer'	< martillo
(before V)			'mare'	< yegua
			'Friday'	< viernes
			'Monday'	< lunes
(before V)			'mare'	< yegua
(stressed)			'garden'	< huerta
(unstressed)			'Wednesday'	< miércoles
			'bull'	< toro
			'pocket'	< bolsa

Although NM Spanish is usually borrowed as Taos , it is nativized as when it precedes the Taos glide , which is the nativization of NM Spanish in the cluster ( > Taos ). Because Taos when followed by is typically raised (i.e. is phonetically ), Taos is phonetically a closer match to NM Spanish low . Thus, NM Spanish compadre is borrowed as ('one's child's godfather' absolute) (with > ).

Taos is a better match than for NM Spanish (phonetically ) because Taos is restricted to affixes in native Taos words.

Another common process is the insertion of after in New Mexican Spanish words ending in , as native words in Taos cannot have syllables ending in .

The other NM Spanish phonemes are nativized as similar phonemes in Taos: NM Spanish > Taos , NM Spanish > Taos , NM Spanish > Taos (but see above for NM Spanish sequence ), NM Spanish > Taos , NM Spanish > Taos , NM Spanish > Taos , NM Spanish > Taos , NM Spanish > Taos .

Later borrowing, which has been subject to less alteration, has led to the development of , word‑initial voiced stops , syllable‑final , and consonants clusters . The word‑internal cluster is reduced to in Taos, as in NM Spanish maestro > Taos ('teacher') — the cluster was reduced further to just as in one speaker, a reflection of the older pattern where cannot be syllable‑final.

See also

• Taos language