Martuthunira language

Martuthunira is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language, that was the traditional language of the Martuthunira people of Western Australia.

The last fluent speaker of Martuthunira, Algy Paterson, died on 6 August 1995. From 1980 he worked with the linguist Alan Dench to preserve Martuthunira in writing, and it is from their work that most of our knowledge of Martuthunira today comes.

Name

The name Martuthunira, pronounced by native speakers, means "those who live around the Fortescue River". It has many spelling variants, including: Maratunia, Mardadhunira, Mardathon, Mardathoni, Mardathoonera, Mardatuna, Mardatunera, Mardudhoonera, Mardudhunera, Mardudhunira, Mardudjungara, Marduduna, Mardudunera, Marduthunira, Mardutunera, Mardutunira, Marduyunira, Martuthinya, and Martuyhunira.

Classification

Martuthunira is classified as a member of the Ngayarta branch of the Pama–Nyungan languages. Under Carl Georg von Brandenstein's 1967 classification, Martuthunira was classed as a Coastal Ngayarda language, but the separation of the Ngayarda languages into Coastal and Inland groups is no longer considered valid.

Phonology

Martuthunira has a fairly standard Australian phonology. R. M. W. Dixon uses it as a prototypical example in his 2002 book Australian Languages: Their nature and development.

Consonants

	Peripheral		Laminal		Apical
	Bilabial	Velar	Palatal	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex
Plosive	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Nasal	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Lateral			Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link
Rhotic					Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Semivowel	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link

The laterals—but perhaps uniquely not the nasals—are allophonically prestopped.

The laminal stop has a voiced allophone Template:IPAblink between vowels.

Between vowels, the dental stop can become Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, or even simply a syllable break. In some words one particular realization is always used, in others there is free variation.

The alveolar stop has a voiced allophone Template:IPAblink after a nasal. It occurs between vowels only in a handful of words, probably all loanwords, where it has a longer period of closure than the other stops Template:IPAblink.

The retroflex stop has a voiced allophone Template:IPAblink after a nasal, and a flapped allophone Template:IPAblink between vowels.

Besides the voiced allophones mentioned above, stops are usually voiceless and unaspirated.

The laterals have prestopped allophones when they occur in a syllable coda.

The alveolar rhotic is a tap Template:IPAblink between vowels, and a usually voiceless trill Template:IPAblink finally.

The palatal semivowel may be dropped initially before , but the equivalent dropping of before initial is rare.

Vowels

	Front	Back
High	Template:IPA link Template:Quad Template:IPAlink	Template:IPA link Template:Quad Template:IPAlink
Low	Template:IPA link Template:Quad Template:IPAlink

is usually realised as Template:IPAblink, though it may be realised as Template:IPAblink near palatal consonants and as Template:IPAblink near , or .

is realised as Template:IPAblink in morpheme-initial syllables, Template:IPAblink elsewhere.

is usually realised as Template:IPAblink in stressed syllables, and Template:IPAblink in unstressed syllables. is fronted to varying degrees when near laminal consonants, being most fronted Template:IPAblink when preceded by a dental consonant. It has an unrounded allophone Template:IPAblink when followed by .

is usually Template:IPAblink, but is lowered to Template:IPAblink when preceded by a dental consonant.

is usually Template:IPAblink when stressed, Template:IPAblink when unstressed. Following a laminal consonant, more so after dentals than palatals, it is fronted towards Template:IPAblink. When preceded by and followed by a velar consonant, it is realised as Template:IPAblink.

is usually simply Template:IPAblink.

Phonotactics

All Martuthunira words begin with one of the following consonants, from most to least frequent: . This consists of only peripheral and laminal stops, nasals, and semivowels. Words may end in a vowel, or one of .

Grammar

Accusative alignment

File:Accusative alignment.svg

Accusative alignment. A = subject of a transitive verb; S = subject of an intransitive verb; O = object of a transitive verb.

Unlike most Australian languages, which exhibit ergativity, Martuthunira and the other Ngayarta languages have an accusative alignment. That is, the subjects of transitive verbs are treated the same as the subjects of intransitive verbs, while the objects are treated differently.

The Martuthunira nominative case is unmarked (zero). The accusative case, which descends from a suffix that originally marked the dative case, takes the form on proper nominals; on common nominals ending in a nasal (); on common nominals ending in a lateral or a rhotic (); and vowel lengthening for common nominals ending in vowels. The accusative case is identical to the genitive case, except for common nominals ending in vowels, where the genitive suffix is .

Case stacking

Martuthunira exhibits case stacking, where nouns take multiple case suffixes for agreement. For example:

• is the object of the verb, and so is in the accusative case.
• gets a proprietive suffix, which indicates that it is possessed by the euro. However, because it modifies , it additionally gets an accusative suffix to agree with it.
• gets a locative suffix, which indicates that it is what the joey is in. It also gets a proprietive suffix to agree with , and then an accusative suffix to agree with .

External links

• Handbook of Western Australian Languages South of the Kimberley Region — Martuthunira