Lepcha language

Lepcha language, or Róng language (Lepcha: ; Róng ríng), is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Lepcha people in Sikkim, India and parts of West Bengal, Nepal, and Bhutan.

Despite spirited attempts to preserve the language, Lepcha has already effectively been lost everywhere in favour of Nepali. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) lists Lepcha as an endangered language with the following characterization.

The Lepcha language is spoken in Sikkim and Darjeeling district in West Bengal of India. The 1991 Indian census counted 39,342 speakers of Lepcha. Lepcha is considered to be one of the indigenous languages of the area in which it is spoken. Unlike most other languages of the Himalayas, the Lepcha people have their own indigenous script (the world's largest collection of old Lepcha manuscripts is kept in Leiden, with over 180 Lepcha books).

Lepcha is the language of instruction in some schools in Sikkim. In comparison to other Tibeto-Burman languages, it has been given considerable attention in the literature. Nevertheless, many important aspects of the Lepcha language and culture still remain undescribed.

There are very few remaining households where the younger generation actively speaks the language. The entire Lepcha area is bilingual. Revitalization efforts are minimal and have had no major impact in conserving the language where it was indigenously spoken. Dwindling population and culture loss have rendered the use of Lepcha superficial and its importance has remained confined to cultural and ceremonial activities where it is required as a part of a tradition that has endured.

Population

Lepcha is spoken by minorities in the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal, as well as parts of Nepal and Bhutan. Where it is spoken, it is considered to be an aboriginal language, pre-dating the arrival of the Tibetan languages (Sikkimese, Dzongkha, and others) and more recent Nepali language. Lepcha speakers comprise four distinct communities: the Renjóngmú of Sikkim; the Támsángmú of Kalimpong, Kurseong, and Mirik; the ʔilámmú of Ilam District, Nepal; and the Promú of southwestern Bhutan. Lepcha-speaking groups in India are larger than those in Nepal and Bhutan.

The Indian census reported 50,000 Lepcha speakers, however the number of native Lepcha speakers in India may be closer to 30,000.

Classification

Lepcha is difficult to classify, but George van Driem (2001) suggests that it may be closest to the Mahakiranti languages, a subfamily of the Himalayish languages.

Lepcha is internally diverse, showing lexical influences from different majority language groups across the four main Lepcha communities. According to Plaisier (2007), these Nepali and Sikkimese Tibetan influences do not amount to a dialectal difference.

Roger Blench (2013) suggests that Lepcha has an Austroasiatic substratum, which originated from a now-extinct branch of Austroasiatic that he calls "Rongic".

Features

Lepcha is a non-tonal Sino-Tibetan language, although it does have phonemic stress or pitch that may be marked in the Lepcha script.Template:Rp Much of its lexicon is composed of monosyllabic elements.

Notably, words that are commonly considered obscene or taboo in other languages are not treated as such by native speakers.

Script and romanization

The Lepcha script (also known as "róng") is a syllabic script featuring a variety of special marks and ligatures. Its genealogy is unclear. Early Lepcha manuscripts were written vertically, a sign of Chinese influence. Prior to the development of the Lepcha script, Lepcha literary works were composed in the Tibetan script.

Lepcha language is romanized according to varying schemes, the prevailing system being that of Mainwaring (1876). Most linguists, including Plaisier (2007), whose system is used in this article, have followed modified versions of Mainwaring's system. Other linguists and historians have used systems based on European languages such as English, French, and German.

Phonology

Consonants

Lepcha consonants appear in the chart below, following Plaisier (2007):Template:Rp

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr				Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
Plosive	voiceless	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
	aspirated	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
	voiced	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr			Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
Affricate	voiceless			Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
	aspirated			Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
	voiced			Template:IPAlink~Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
Fricative	voiced	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr				Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
	voiceless	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
Approximant		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr				Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr		Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
Trill				Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr

Retroflex phonemes /ʈ/, /ʈʰ/, and /ɖ/ are written in Lepcha script as , , and , respectively. Most, though not all, instances of retroflex consonants indicate a word is of Tibetan origin. To distinguish this retroflex sound in Lepcha script, a dot may be written underneath: , , and . Native instances of non-retroflex , , and may either be pronounced as written or as Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr. For example, , Template:Gloss, may be said either or .

Lepcha has three glide consonants that may occur after certain initial consonants: , , and . When the phoneme operates as a glide, it can combine with as a double-glide: , Template:Gloss. Notably, syllables with the glide are given their own independent forms in the Lepcha script.

Velar consonants and preceding front vowels or are palatalized as and , respectively. Fricatives and are merged before .

Lepcha speakers tend not to distinguish between and , pronouncing both as ~~. Additionally, initial is occasionally realized as . Under the influence of Nepali, some Lepcha speakers have lost the distinction between and , and between and .

Of the above phonemes, only , and may be syllable-final. Native speakers tend to neutralize the difference between final and . In syllable-final position, stops are realized as an unreleased stop, usually pronounced with a simultaneous : for example, becomes .

Vowels

According to Plaisier (2007), Lepcha has eight vowels:Template:Rp

	Front	Central	Back
	Unrounded			Rounded
Close	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Close-mid	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Mid		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr
Open-mid				Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Open		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

The phoneme denoted by Template:Angbr is shortened and appears in closed syllables; Template:Angbr is longer and appears in open syllables. The phoneme /e/ is realized as in open syllables and in closed syllables before or . Closed syllables ending in , , , , , and show free variation between , , and even . Distinctions between and are often lost among non-literate speakers, particularly those highly fluent in Nepali language, which does not contrast the sounds.

Grammar

Lepcha grammar features nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. Word order is typically subject–object–verb (SOV). Lepcha morphology is somewhat agglutinative, though most bare Lepcha lexicon is made up of one- or two-syllable words. Nouns are arranged into either head-first or head-last noun phrases. Relative clauses and genitive phrases precede nouns, whereas markers for demonstratives, definiteness, number, case, and other particles follow the noun. Lepcha is an ergative language, where the ergative case indicates transitivity and completedness of the event. There is no grammatical agreement between different parts of speech (i.e. verb conjugation). Adjectives follow nouns they modify, function as predicates, or stand independently as nominal heads. Adverbs generally directly precede verbs, and reduplication is generally productive for adverbs of time (e.g. Template:Gloss → Template:Gloss).

Nouns

According to Plaisier (2007), Lepcha has only two true "cases" that modify the noun morphologically: the definite article and the dative case marker . All other noun markers, including for example the genitive marker, are actually invariable postpositions. A series noun markers may follow a single noun. Together, these cases and postpositions are:

Postposition	Meaning
	human plural
	non-human plural
	definite, topic
/ /	ergative, ablative
	dative
	genitive
	locative
	only
	both

Plurals are marked differently according to whether they are human () or non-human () nouns. Notably, the plural is not used when the noun is followed by a number.

According to Plaisier (2007), Lepcha personal pronouns are as follows:

	Singular (Oblique)	Dual	Plural
First person	( )
Second person	( )
Third person	( )

Oblique forms appear in parentheses above. Lepcha personal pronouns can refer only to humans; otherwise demonstratives are used. Personal pronouns may take the definite article .

Thematic classes

Many Lepcha nouns can be grouped into one of several classes based on associated characteristics. For example, many animal names begin with the Lepcha script syllabic Template:Angbr, e.g., Template:Gloss, Template:Gloss, Template:Gloss, and Template:Gloss. Other noun classes include Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr for plants, and Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr for snakes and bamboo products.

Verbs

Lepcha verbs generally function as predicates or, in relative clauses, as modifiers before a head-noun. Verbs may also be nominalized by a combination of suffixes. For example, Template:Gloss may be suffixed to produce Template:Gloss.

Many intransitive verbs incorporate a causative infix, sometimes followed by a suffix, to take a transitive sense:

• Template:Gloss → Template:Gloss;
• Template:Gloss → Template:Gloss;
• Template:Gloss → Template:Gloss.

Verbs are followed by grammatical suffixes and particles. Verbal particles indicating sureness, polite requests, authoritativeness, dubiousness, and other nonlexical information follow clauses. Below is a chart of such verb- and clause-final suffixes and particles largely following Plaisier (2007):

Suffix or Particle	Meaning
	progressive
	exhaustive
	perfective
	infinitive
	factual
	definite
	resultant
	adhortative
	question
	polite request
	assertive
	authoritative
	dubiousness
	certainty
	inference

Verbs are negated by a circumfix, , e.g., Template:Gloss becomes Template:Gloss.

Vocabulary

These are some sample words published in Renato Figuerido's Lepcha dictionary.

Caption text

English	Lepcha (Latin)	Lepcha (Róng/Lepcha script)
Lady	Ku-mo	Template:Huge
Let	kón	Template:Huge
Proceed	Dí	Template:Huge
Reach a height	Thók	Template:Huge
Riverbank	Klóp	Template:Huge
A cut	Mó	Template:Huge
To pull	Krút	Template:Huge
Go	Nóng	Template:Huge
Flabby	Thyor	Template:Huge
Reflective Light	Lóng	Template:Huge
Palm	Lyók	Template:Huge
To be short	Tan	Template:Huge
Meat	Ke-rung	Template:Huge
Overclouded	Muk	Template:Huge
What comes first	Ták	Template:Huge
Mother	A-mo	Template:Huge
To knot	Tyep	Template:Huge
A spec of Sterculia	Ke-hlyám kun	Template:Huge
Be on strong legs	Krang	Template:Huge
Dirt	Me-ri	Template:Huge
To slice	Líp	Template:Huge
Entire	Shem	Template:Huge
Cold	Hyáng	Template:Huge
To be drawn together	Chom	Template:Huge
One's Self	Te-do	Template:Huge
Wide	Veng	Template:Huge
To arrest	Tho	Template:Huge
To crush	Shíp	Template:Huge
Mouth	A-bong	Template:Huge
To twist	Kar	Template:Huge
Arrow	Sa-li	Template:Huge
Egg	Tí	Template:Huge
To sit	Ngan	Template:Huge
Flow round	Kyúl	Template:Huge
Overclouded	Pe-mang	Template:Huge
House	A-dóng	Template:Huge
Carry	Bú	Template:Huge
Dream	Mong	Template:Huge
A corner	Tung-kyang	Template:Huge
Basket	Dyóng	Template:Huge
Large	Túng	Template:Huge
Husband	Evo	Template:Huge
Grain	Gró	Template:Huge
Rice basket	Ku-mu	Template:Huge
Placenta	A-yeng-tyol	Template:Huge
Quick	Rem	Template:Huge
Sew	Hrap	Template:Huge
A spec of Solanum	Ke-lim-bi	Template:Huge

See also

• Lepcha script
• Sikkimese Tibetan language
• Languages of Nepal
• Languages of India
• Languages of Bhutan