H-dropping

H-dropping or aitch-dropping is the deletion of the voiceless glottal fricative or "H-sound", . The phenomenon is common in many dialects of English, and is also found in certain other languages, either as a purely historical development or as a contemporary difference between dialects. Although common in most regions of England and in some other English-speaking countries, and linguistically speaking a neutral evolution in languages, H-dropping is often stigmatized as a sign of careless or uneducated speech, due to its strong association with the lower class.

The reverse phenomenon, H-insertion or H-adding, is found in certain situations, sometimes as an allophone or hypercorrection by H-dropping speakers, and sometimes as a spelling pronunciation or out of perceived etymological correctness. A particular example of this is the spread of 'haitch' for 'aitch'.

In English

Historical /h/-loss

In Old English phonology, the sounds , , and (described respectively as glottal, velar and palatal voiceless fricatives) are taken to be allophones of a single phoneme . This phoneme occurred at the start of syllables, alone or clustered with an approximant, and in coda position. The sound appeared in most onsets (except those with an and cluster, which had ) and the other two allophones in syllable codas ( after back vowels and after front vowels).

The instances of in coda position were lost during the Middle English and Early Modern English periods, although they are still reflected in the spelling of words such as taught (now pronounced like taut) and weight (now pronounced in most accents like wait). Most of the initial clusters involving also disappeared (see H-cluster reductions). As a result, in the standard varieties of Modern English, the only position in which can occur is at the start of a syllable, either alone (as in hat, house, behind, etc.), in the cluster (as in huge), or (for a minority of speakers) in the cluster (as in whine if pronounced differently from wine). The usual realizations of the latter two clusters are and (see English phonology).

Contemporary H-dropping

The phenomenon of H-dropping considered as a feature of contemporary English is the omission, in certain accents and dialects, of this syllable-initial , either alone or in the cluster . (For the cluster and its reduction, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩.)

Description

H-dropping, in certain accents and dialects of Modern English, causes words like harm, heat, home and behind to be pronounced arm, eat, ome and be-ind (though in some dialects an [h] may appear in behind to prevent hiatus – see below).

Cases of H-dropping occur in all English dialects in the weak forms of function words like he, him, her, his, had, and have. The pronoun it is a product of historical H-dropping – the older hit survives as an emphatic form in a few dialects such as Southern American English, and in the Scots language. Because the of unstressed have is usually dropped, the word is usually pronounced in phrases like should have, would have, and could have. These can be spelled out in informal writing as "should've", "would've", and "could've". Because is also the weak form of the word of, these words are often erroneously spelled as should of, would of and could of.

History

There is evidence of h-dropping in texts from the 13th century and later. It may originally have arisen through contact with the Norman language, where h-dropping also occurred. Puns which rely on the possible omission of the sound can be found in works by William Shakespeare and in other Elizabethan era dramas. It is suggested that the phenomenon probably spread from the middle to the lower orders of society, first taking hold in urban centers. It started to become stigmatized, being seen as a sign of poor education, in the 16th or 17th century.

Geographical distribution

File:H-dropping.svg

H-dropping in the English language in England (based on Upton and Widdowson, 2006). Dialects in the regions marked no /h/ feature (variable) H-dropping, while those in the regions marked /h/ generally do not, although there is some local variation within these regions.

H-dropping occurs (variably) in most of the dialects of the English language in England and Welsh English, including Cockney, West Country English, West Midlands English (including Brummie), East Midlands English, most of northern England (including Yorkshire and Lancashire), and Cardiff English. It is not generally found in Scottish English and Irish English. It is also typically absent in certain regions of England and Wales, including Northumberland, East Anglia and parts of North and West Wales.

H-dropping also occurs in some Jamaican English, and perhaps in other Caribbean English (including some of The Bahamas). It is not generally found in North American English, although it has been reported in Newfoundland (outside the Avalon Peninsula). However, dropping of /h/ from the cluster /hj/ (so that human is pronounced ) is found in some American dialects, as well as in parts of Ireland – see reduction of /hj/.

Social distribution and stigmatization

H-dropping, in the countries and regions in which it is prevalent, occurs mainly in working-class accents. Studies have shown it to be significantly more frequent in lower than in higher social groups. It is not a feature of RP (the prestige accent of England), or even of "Near-RP", a variant of RP that includes some regional features. This does not always apply, however, to the dropping of /h/ in weak forms of words like his and her.

H-dropping in English is widely stigmatized, being perceived as a sign of poor or uneducated speech, and discouraged by schoolteachers. John Wells writes that it seems to be "the single most powerful pronunciation shibboleth in England."

Use and status of the H-sound in H-dropping dialects

In fully H-dropping dialects, that is, in dialects without a phonemic , the sound may still occur but with uses other than distinguishing words. An epenthetic may be used to avoid hiatus, so that for example the egg is pronounced the hegg. It may also be used when any vowel-initial word is emphasized, so that horse (assuming the dialect is also non-rhotic) and ass may be pronounced and in emphatic utterances. That is, has become an allophone of the zero onset in these dialects.

For many H-dropping speakers, however, a phonological appears to be present, even if it is not usually realized – that is, they know which words "should" have an , and have a greater tendency to pronounce an [h] in those words than in other words beginning with a vowel. Insertion of [h] may occur as a means of emphasis, as noted above, and also as a response to the formality of a situation. Sandhi phenomena may also indicate a speaker's awareness of the presence of an – for example, some speakers might say "a edge" (rather than "an edge") for a hedge, and might omit the linking R before an initial vowel resulting from a dropped H.

It is likely that the phonemic system of children in H-dropping areas lacks a /h/ entirely, but that social and educational pressures lead to the incorporation of an (inconsistently realized) /h/ into the system by the time of adulthood.

H-insertion

The opposite of H-dropping, called H-insertion or H-adding, sometimes occurs as a hypercorrection in English accents that typically drop H. It is commonly noted in literature from late Victorian times to the early 20th century that some lower-class people consistently drop h in words that should have it, while adding h to words that should not have it. An example from the musical My Fair Lady is, "In 'Artford, 'Ereford, and 'Ampshire, 'urricanes 'ardly hever 'appen". Another is in C. S. Lewis's The Magician's Nephew: "Three cheers for the Hempress of Colney 'Atch". In practice, however, it would appear that h-adding is more of a stylistic prosodic effect, being found in highly emphasized words, regardless of whether those words are h-initial or vowel-initial in the standard language.

Some English words borrowed from French may begin with the letter Template:Angbr but not with the sound . Examples include heir, and, in many regional pronunciations, hour, hono(u)r and honest. In some cases, spelling pronunciation has introduced the sound into such words, as in humble, human, hotel and (for most speakers) historic. Spelling pronunciation has also added to the British English pronunciation of herb, , while American English retains the older pronunciation . Etymology may also serve as a motivation for H-addition, as in the words horrible, habit and harmony: these were borrowed into Middle English from French without an (orrible, abit, armonie), but as all three derive from Latin words with an , they would later acquired an in English as an etymological "correction". The name of the letter H itself, "aitch", is subject to H-insertion in some dialects, where it is pronounced "haitch". (In Hiberno-English, "haitch" has come to be considered standard, consistent with their not being H-dropping dialects). Various dialects of Newfoundland English exhibit the same pattern.

List of homophones resulting from H-dropping

The following is a list of some pairs of English words which may become homophones when H-dropping occurs. (To view the list, click "show".) See also the list of H-dropping homophones in Wiktionary.

Homophonous pairs

		IPA	Notes
ha	ah
habit	abbot		With weak vowel merger.
hacked	act
hacks	axe; ax
had	ad
had	add
hail	ail
hail	ale		With pane-pain merger.
Haim	aim
hair	air
hair	ere		With pane-pain merger.
hair	heir
haired	erred		With pane-pain merger.
Hal	Al
hale	ail		With pane-pain merger.
hale	ale
hall	all
halter	alter
ham	am
hand	and
hanker	anchor
hap	app
hare	air		With pane-pain merger.
hare	ere
hare	heir		With pane-pain merger.
hark	arc
hark	ark
harm	arm
hart	art; Art
has	as
hash	ash
haste	aced
hat	at
hate	ate
hate	eight		With pane-pain merger and wait-weight merger.
haul	all
haunt	aunt		With trap-bath split and father-bother merger.
hawk	auk
hawk	orc		In non-rhotic accents.
hay	A
hay	eh
he	E
head	Ed
heady	Eddie
heady	eddy
heal	eel		With fleece merger or meet-meat merger.
hear	ear
heard	erred
hearing	earing
hearing	earring
heart	art; Art
heat	eat
heathen	even		With th-fronting.
heather	ever		With th-fronting.
heave	eve; Eve
heave	eave
heaven	Evan
heaving	even		With weak vowel merger and G-dropping.
hedge	edge
heel	eel
heinous	anus		With pane-pain merger.
heist	iced
Helen	Ellen
Helena	Eleanor		In non-rhotic accents.
Helena	Elena
hell	L; el; ell
he'll	eel
helm	elm
hem	M; em
hen	N; en
herd	erred
here	ear
here's	ears
heron	Erin		With weak vowel merger.
herring	Erin		With weak vowel merger and G-dropping.
he's	E's
Heuston	Euston
hew	ewe
hew	yew
hew	you
hews	ewes
hews	use
hews	yews
hex	ex
hex	X; ex
hey	A
hey	eh
hi	aye; ay
hi	eye
hi	I
hid	id
hide	I'd
high	aye; ay
high	eye
high	I
higher	ire
hike	Ike
hill	ill
hinky	inky
hire	ire
his	is
hit	it
hitch	itch
hive	I've
hoard	awed		In non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger.
hoard	oared
hoarder	order		With horse-hoarse merger.
hocks	ox
hoe	O
hoe	oh
hoe	owe		With toe-tow merger.
hoes	O's
hoister	oyster
hold	old
holed	old		With toe-tow merger.
holly	Olly
hone	own		With toe-tow merger.
hop	op
hopped	opped
hopped	opt
horde	awed		In non-rhotic accents.
horde	oared
horn	awn		In non-rhotic accents.
horn	on		In non-rhotic accents with lot-cloth split.
hotter	otter
how	ow
howl	owl
how're	hour
how're	our
Houston	Euston
Hoyle	oil
hue	ewe
hue	U
hue	yew
hue	you
hues	ewes
hues	U's
hues	use
hues	yews
Hugh	ewe
Hugh	U
Hugh	yew
Hugh	you
Hughes	ewes
Hughes	U's
Hughes	use
Hughes	yews
hurl	earl		With fern-fir-fur merger.
Huston	Euston
Hyde	I'd
whore	awe		In non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger and pour-poor merger.
whore	oar		With pour-poor merger.
whore	or		With horse-hoarse merger and pour-poor merger.
whore	ore		With pour-poor merger.
whored	awed		In non-rhotic accents with horse-hoarse merger and pour-poor merger.
whored	oared		With pour-poor merger.
who's	ooze
who's	Ouse
whose	ooze
whose	Ouse

In other languages

Processes of H-dropping have occurred in various languages at certain times, and in some cases, they remain as distinguishing features between dialects, as in English. Some Dutch dialects, especially the southern ones, feature H-dropping. The dialects of Zeeland, West and East Flanders, most of Antwerp and Flemish Brabant, and the west of North Brabant have lost /h/ as a phonemic consonant but use [h] to avoid hiatus and to signal emphasis, much as in the H-dropping dialects of English. H-dropping is also found in some North Germanic languages, for instance Elfdalian and the dialect of Roslagen, where it is found already in Old East Norse. Also the Low Saxon speaking area around Zwolle, Kampen, Steenwijk, Meppel and Hoogeveen have h-dropping, the former island of Urk has it too as do some regions in Groningen.

When dealing with Greek, this process is called psilosis. The phoneme in Ancient Greek of Classical Athens, occurring predominantly at the beginnings of words and originally written with the letter H and later as a rough breathing, had been lost by that period in most Ionic dialects and from all Greek dialects during the late Hellenistic/Roman era. Hence it not a phoneme of Modern Greek being approximated in foreign loanwords by or (or ).

The phoneme was lost in Vulgar Latin, the ancestor of the modern Romance languages. Already in the Imperial period, there is attested evidence for early h-loss. French, Spanish, and Romanian have acquired new initial in medieval times, but they were later lost in the first two languages in a "second round" of H-dropping. Some dialects of Spanish have yet again acquired from , which as of now is stable.

It is hypothesized in the laryngeal theory that the loss of or similar sounds played a role in the early development of the Indo-European languages.

In Maltese, existed as a phoneme until the 19th century. It was then lost in most positions, sometimes lengthening the adjacent vowel. Chiefly word-finally it was merged with /Template:IPAlink/. The latter phoneme, in turn, may now be pronounced by some speakers, chiefly in the syllable onset.

Modern Hebrew is in the process of losing ; the phoneme is either replaced by (word-initially) or entirely absent (in all other positions) in the speech of contemporary young speakers.

In Tagalog, is sometimes elided into an immediately succeeding vowel, such as "huwag" from /huˈwaɡ/ to /ˈwag/ and "sabihin" from /saˈbihin/ to /saˈbin/.

Many dialects of Persian spoken in Afghanistan (i.e. Dari) do not realize the phoneme , except in high-prestige literary words or in hyper formal speech. The deletion of the phoneme may cause a preceding short vowel to be reinterpreted as a long vowel, likely due to phonological rules in Dari prohibiting short vowels and long vowels from being equal in length. For example, <قهر> (qahr /qahɾ/, "anger") is often realized as qār /qɑːɾ/ (as if it was written like <قار>), and <فهمیدن> (fahmīdan /fahmiːdan/, to understand) is often realized as <فامیدن> (fāmīdan /fɑːmiːdan/). Between vowels, the phoneme may be replaced by a glide ( or ) resulting in words like <خواهش> (x(w)āhiš /xɑːhɪʃ/, "I want") being realized as <خایش> (xāyš /xɑːjʃ/) or, in dialects that no longer distinguish āy and ay, this may be further reduced to xayš /xajʃ/ (as if spelt <خیش>).

The modern Javanese language typically does not have initial and intervocalic in its native words, except between the same vowels. For instance, in modern Javanese, the word for "rain" is udan, from Old Javanese hudan, which ultimately comes from Proto-Austronesian *quzaN. The letter "ꦲ" in traditional Javanese script, which had the value in Old Javanese is now used in most cases to represent and in its base form. In modern Javanese, initial and intervocalic appears only in loanwords from Indonesian and English. Since the Javanese people have been exposed to Dutch for far longer than they are with Indonesian or standard literary Malay (which only started somewhere after 1900 and amplified after 1945, excluding Surinamese Javanese), many of the words borrowed from Dutch have also lost the phoneme, such as andhuk /aɳˈɖ̥(ʰ)ʊʔ/ "towel" from Dutch handdoek.

See also

• Phonological history of English
• Phonological history of English consonants
• Aspirated h