Ske language
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Ske (or Seke) is an endangered language of south-western Pentecost island in Vanuatu. Ske is an Oceanic language (a branch of the Austronesian language family).
The Ske area comprises fourteen small villages centred on Baravet in south-central Pentecost, from Liavzendam (Levizendam) in the north to Hotwata in the south and extending inland to Vanliamit. Historically the language's area extended to parallel areas of the east coast, but this part of the island is now depopulated.
Due to intermarriage between language areas, an increasing number of people in Ske-speaking villages now speak Bislama as a first language, and Ske is no longer being actively transmitted to children. A closely related neighbouring language, Sowa, has already been totally displaced by Apma.
The number of Ske speakers is estimated at 300. The widely reported figure of 600 is probably an overestimate, since not everybody in the Ske area is fluent in the language.
There is no significant dialectal variation within modern Ske, although there are noticeable differences between the Ske of older and younger speakers. Doltes, the extinct dialect of Hotwata village, is sometimes regarded as a Ske dialect, but appears to have been closer to Sa.
There is no local tradition of writing in Ske, and until recently the language was virtually undocumented. However, linguist Kay Johnson has written a PhD thesis on the language, including a sketch grammar. Prior to her arrival, the only records of Ske were short vocabulary lists collected by David Walsh in the 1960s, Catriona Hyslop in 2001 and Andrew Gray in 2007.
Phonology
Ske notably drops unstressed vowels. This has resulted in a language rich in consonants, in contrast to related languages such as Raga. Due to the presence of consonant clusters within syllables and other phonological features not typical of the area's languages, speakers of neighbouring languages consider Ske difficult to speak and learn.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Geminate consonants occur where two identical consonants have been brought together by the historical loss of an intervening vowel, for example in Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss (compare Sowa Script error: No such module "Lang".). Geminates contrast with single consonants word initially, e.g., Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss and Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Unlike neighbouring languages such as Apma, Ske permits a variety of voiced consonants to occur at the end of syllables, although when they occur at the end of an utterance they are often followed by an 'echo' of the previous vowel. For example, Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". Template:Gloss is often pronounced Script error: No such module "IPA"..Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Stress typically occurs on the final syllable of a word.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Consonants
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plain | Labio-velarized | |||||
| Nasal | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Plosive | Voiceless | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Voiced | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Fricative | Voiceless | (Template:IPA link) | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Voiced | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||
| Approximant | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | ||||
| Trill | Template:IPA link | |||||
- Voiced plosives are prenasalized, contrasting with voiceless plosives. For example, Script error: No such module "IPA". Script error: No such module "IPA". Template:Gloss contrasts with Script error: No such module "IPA". Script error: No such module "IPA". Template:Gloss. Prenasalization also occurs across word boundaries (sandhi) when the previous word ends in a vowel. For example, Template:Gloss Script error: No such module "IPA". becomes Script error: No such module "IPA"..Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Verb-initial Script error: No such module "IPA". become Script error: No such module "IPA"..Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- As of 2014[update]Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"., younger speakers are re-analyzing Script error: No such module "IPA". as Script error: No such module "IPA".. For example, older speakers say Script error: No such module "IPA". for Template:Gloss, while younger speakers say Script error: No such module "IPA"..Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Bilabial consonants lose their velarization before a consonant or at the end of a word.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Script error: No such module "IPA". becomes Script error: No such module "IPA". before back vowels.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Script error: No such module "IPA". only occurs in loanwords.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Some speakers pronounce Script error: No such module "IPA". as an affricate.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
- Script error: No such module "IPA". is pronounced Script error: No such module "IPA". before voiced phonemes.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Close-mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Open-mid | Template:IPA link | Template:IPA link | |
| Open | Template:IPA link |
- Script error: No such module "IPA". is phonetically Script error: No such module "IPA". after most consonants (generally not after Script error: No such module "IPA".) in a stressed syllable.Script error: No such module "Footnotes".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
| Falling | Rising |
|---|---|
| Script error: No such module "IPA". | Script error: No such module "IPA". |
| Script error: No such module "IPA". |
Orthography
Kay Johnson worked with the Ske community to develop the following orthography:
| Phoneme | Grapheme |
|---|---|
| Template:IPA link | a |
| Template:IPA link | b |
| Template:IPA link | bw |
| Template:IPA link | d |
| Template:IPA link | é; ieTemplate:Efn |
| Template:IPA link | e |
| Template:IPA link | q |
| Template:IPA link | g |
| Template:IPA link | h |
| Template:IPA link | i |
| Template:IPA link | k |
| Template:IPA link | l |
| Template:IPA link | m |
| Template:IPA link | mw |
| Template:IPA link | n |
| Template:IPA link | ng |
| Template:IPA link | ó |
| Template:IPA link | o |
| Template:IPA link | p |
| Template:IPA link | pw |
| Template:IPA link | r |
| Template:IPA link | s |
| Template:IPA link | t |
| Template:IPA link | u |
| Template:IPA link | v |
| Template:IPA link | vw |
| Template:IPA link | w |
| Template:IPA link | z |
Some older sources write Script error: No such module "IPA". as Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr.
Grammar
Basic word order in Ske is subject–verb–object.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns are distinguished by person and number. They are not distinguished by gender. The basic pronouns are:
| singular | plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". |
| inclusive | Script error: No such module "Lang". | ||
| 2nd person | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | |
| 3rd person | Script error: No such module "Lang". | Script error: No such module "Lang". | |
Nouns
Nouns in Ske are generally not preceded by articles. Plurality is indicated by placing the pronoun Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss or a number after the noun.
Nouns may be either free, or directly possessed. Directly possessed nouns are suffixed to indicate whom an item belongs to. For example:
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
Possession may also be indicated by the use of possessive classifiers, separate words that occur before or after the noun and take possessive suffixes. These classifiers are:
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for general possessions (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for things that are cared for, such as crops and livestock (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for things to be eaten (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for things to be drunk (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss) and for buildings (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for fire (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for fruits that are cut open (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". for associations, over which the possessor has no control (Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss)
The possessive suffixes are as follows:
| singular | plural | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive | Template:Interlinear | Template:Interlinear | ||
| inclusive | Template:Interlinear | ||||
| 2nd person | Template:Interlinear | Template:Interlinear | |||
| 3rd person | Template:Interlinear | Template:Interlinear | |||
| Generic | Template:Interlinear | ||||
A verb may be transformed into a noun by the addition of a nominalising suffix Script error: No such module "Lang".:
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss (verb)
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss (noun)
Modifiers generally come after a noun:
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
- Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:Gloss
Verbs
Verbs are preceded by markers providing information on the subject and the tense, aspect and mood of an action. These markers differ substantially between older and younger speakers; the newer forms are in brackets below.
| Person | Subject marker - imperfective (present tense) |
Subject marker - perfective (past tense) |
Subject marker - irrealis (future tense) |
English |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | mwa | ni | mwade or mwan | "I" |
| 2nd person singular | kmwe (mwi) | ki (ti) | ti (de ti) | "you" (singular) |
| 3rd person singular | m[w] or mwe | a | de | "he" / "she" / "it" |
| 1st person dual (inclusive) | ta | kra (tra) | tra (de tra) | "we" (you and I, two of us) |
| 1st person dual (exclusive) | mwamra | mwara (mwamra) | mwadra | "we" (another and I) |
| 2nd person dual | mwira or mwria | kria (dria) | dria (de dria) | "you" (two) |
| 3rd person dual | mra | ara | dra | "they" (two) |
| 1st person plural (inclusive) | pe | kve (tve) | tve (de tve) | "we" (you and I) |
| 1st person plural (exclusive) | mwabe | mwave (mwabe) | mwadve | "we" (others and I) |
| 2nd person plural | bi | kvie (dvie) | dvie (de dvie) | "you" (plural) |
| 3rd person plural | be | ave | dve | "they" |
There is a pattern of verb-consonant mutation whereby v at the start of a verb changes to b, and vw to bw. This mutation occurs in imperfective aspect (present tense), and in irrealis mood (future tense):
- ni va = I went
- mwa ba = I am going
- mwade ba = I will go
(Among a few older speakers there is also mutation of z to d, but most Ske speakers today use only the d forms.)
Hypothetical phrases are marked with mó:
- ni mó umné = I should do it
Negative phrases are preceded by kare ("not") or a variant:
- kare ni umné = I didn't do it
Transitive and intransitive verb forms are distinguished. Transitive verbs are commonly followed or suffixed with -né:
- mwa róh = I move
- mwa róh né vet = I move the stone
Ske makes extensive use of stative verbs for descriptive purposes.
Ske has a copular verb, vé or bé.
Verbs in Ske can be linked together in serial verb constructions.
Sample phrases
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| English | Ske (traditional) | Ske (younger speakers) |
|---|---|---|
| Good morning | Vangren ambis | Vangren ambis |
| Good day | Ren ambis | Ren ambis |
| Good evening / Good night | Buong ambis | Biong ambis |
| Where are you going? | Kmwe mba embéh? | Mwi mba embéh? |
| I'm going to... | Mwa mba... | Mwa mba... |
| Where have you come from? | Ki me embéh? | Ti me embéh? |
| I've come from... | Ni me... | Ni me... |
| Where is it? | Mdu embéh? | Mdu embéh? |
| It's here | Mdu ene | Mdu ene |
| Come here! | Ti me ene! | Ti me ene! |
| Go away! | Ti suk! | Ti suk! |
| What's your name? | Siam ne sien? | Siam ne sien? |
| My name is... | Siaq ne... | Siaq ne... |
| Where are you from? | Iq azó ze embéh? | Iq azó ze embéh? |
| I am from... | Nou azó ze... | Nou azó ze... |
| How much? / How many? | Avih? | Avih? |
| one | alvwal | alvial |
| two | aru | aru |
| three | aziol | aziol |
| four | aviet | aviet |
| five | alim | alim |
| Thank you | Kmwe mbariev | Mwi mbariev |
| It's just fine | Bis knge | Bis knge |
Notes
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References
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External links
- The Languages of Pentecost Island - further information on Ske
- ELAR archive of Ske (Seke) language documentation materials
Template:Languages of Vanuatu Template:Southern Oceanic languages Template:Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages