Primate city

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File:Countries with a primate city.svg
Countries with a national primate city highlighted in yellow

A primate city[1] is a city that is the largest in its country, province, state, or region, and disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy.[2] A primate city distribution is a rank-size distribution that has one very large city with many much smaller cities and towns and no intermediate-sized urban centers, creating a statistical king effect.[3]

The law of the primate city was first proposed by the geographer Mark Jefferson in 1939.[4] He defines a primate city as being "at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as significant."[5] Aside from size and population, a primate city will usually have precedence in all other aspects of its country's society such as economics, politics, culture, and education. Primate cities also serve as targets for the majority of a country or region's internal migration.

In geography, the phenomenon of excessive concentration of population and development of the main city of a country or a region (often to the detriment of other areas) is called urban primacy or urban macrocephaly.[6]

Measurement

Urban primacy can be measured as the share of a country's population that lives in the primate city.[7] Relative primacy indicates the ratio of the primate city's population to that of the second largest in a country or region.[8]

Significance

There is debate as to whether a primate city serves a parasitic or generative function.[9] The presence of a primate city in a country may indicate an imbalance in development—usually a progressive core and a lagging periphery—on which the city depends for labor and other resources.[10] However, the urban structure is not directly dependent on a country's level of economic development.[2]

Many primate cities gain an increasing share of their country's population. This can be due to a reduction in blue-collar population in the hinterlands because of mechanization and automation. Simultaneously, the number of educated employees in white-collar endeavors such as politics, finance, media, and higher education rises. These sectors are clustered predominantly in primate cities where power and wealth are concentrated.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Examples

Some global cities are considered national or regional primate cities.[5][11] An example of a global city that is also a primate city is Istanbul in Turkey. Istanbul serves as the primate city of Turkey due to the unmatched economic, political, cultural, and educational influence that the city possesses in comparison to other Turkish cities such as the capital Ankara, İzmir, or Bursa. Likewise, Mexico City, Paris, Cairo, Jakarta, and Seoul have also been described as primate cities of their respective countries.[12] However, not all regions and countries possess a primate city. The United States has never had a primate city on a national level due to the decentralized nature of the country and because the country's second-largest city, Los Angeles, is not far behind the country's largest city, New York City, in either population or GDP. The metropolitan area of New York City has over 19 million residents, while that of Los Angeles has roughly 13 million residents, as of 2022.[13]

Sub-national divisions can also have primate cities. For instance, New York City is the State of New York's primate city, because its population is 32 times bigger than the state's second-largest city of Buffalo. New York City has 44% of the population and 65% of the GDP of the State of New York.[14] The city of Anchorage is another U.S. example, with around 40% of the total population of Alaska living within the city's limits. China does not have a primate city at a national level, but several provincial capitals are disproportionately larger than other urban areas in the respective provinces. For example, Henan, Hubei, and Sichuan have provincial capitals (Zhengzhou, Wuhan, and Chengdu, respectively) that are significantly larger than the second-largest cities in those provinces, and each of those provinces has a population similar to that of a large European country. India does not have a primate city, as Delhi is not much larger than Mumbai or Kolkata in terms of population. However, many Indian states, such as Karnataka, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Telangana, do have primate cities: Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, respectively. Other Indian states, such as Uttar Pradesh and Kerala, do not have any primate cities.[15]

Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, has been called "the most primate city on Earth": in 2000 it was 40 times larger than the second-largest city of that time, Nakhon Ratchasima.[16] As of 2022, Bangkok is nearly nine times larger than Thailand's current second-largest city of Chiang Mai, which has been growing in population and has also had its boundaries expanded to reflect that growth.[17][18] Taking the concept from his examination of the primate city during the 2010 Thai political protests and applying it to the role that primate cities play if they are national capitals, researcher Jack Fong noted that when primate cities like Bangkok function as national capitals, they are inherently vulnerable to insurrection by the military and the dispossessed. He cites the fact that most primate cities serving as national capitals contain major headquarters for the country. Thus, logistically, it is rather "efficient" to target a national capital that is also a primate city; most of the governing power is contained in that one small area, and so are most of the people.[19]

The metropolitan area of the city of Moscow, the capital of Russia, is 2.3 times the size of the metropolitan area of the next largest city, Saint Petersburg,[20][21] and plays a unique and uncontested role of the cultural and political center of the country.[22] It can therefore be considered a primate city.

Primate cities need not be capital cities: governments may establish a new capital city in an attempt to challenge the primacy of the largest city or provide more balanced growth. For example, in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam is still the primate city even though the capital was moved to Dodoma, a new city built to a plan, in 1996. A similar process (though without building a planned city) occurred when the existing city of Wellington was chosen as New Zealand's capital in 1865; Auckland, the capital before the relocation, commanded (and still commands) a greater share of the population and economy.

List

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Africa

Country Primate Population Second largest Population Relative primacy
Script error: No such module "flag". Addis Ababa 3,352,000 Adama 342,940 9.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Algiers 7,896,923 Oran 1,560,329 5.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Antananarivo 1,275,207 Toamasina 300,813 4.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Asmara 650,000 Keren 82,198 7.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Bamako 1,810,366 Sikasso 226,618 8.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Bangui 622,771 Bimbo 124,176 5.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Banjul-Serekunda area 519,835[23] Brikama 101,119[23] 5.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Bissau 492,004 Gabu 48,670 10.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Cairo[24] 22,183,000 Alexandria 6,100,000 3.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Conakry[25] 1,660,973 Nzérékoré 195,027 8.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Dakar[25] 2,646,503 Touba 753,315 3.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Dar es Salaam 7,000,000 Mwanza 1,104,521 6.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Djibouti City 475,322 Ali Sabieh 37,939 12.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Freetown[25] 1,500,234 Bo 233,684 6.4
File:Flag of Somaliland.svg Somaliland Hargeisa[26] 1,200,000 Burao[27] 425,000 2.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Kampala 1,507,080 Nansana 365,124 4.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Kigali 1,132,686 Butare 89,600 12.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Kinshasa 17,239,463 Mbuji-Mayi 2,643,000 7.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Lagos[28] 16,637,000 Kano 4,490,734 3.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Libreville 703,904 Port Gentil 136,462 5.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Lomé 1,477,660 Sokodé 118,000 12.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Luanda[25] 8,069,612 Lubango 903,564 8.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Lusaka 2,238,569 Kitwe 522,092 4.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Maseru 330,760 Teyateyaneng 75,115 4.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Monrovia 1,101,970 Ganta 41,106 26.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Nairobi 5,500,000 Mombasa 1,208,333 4.6
Script error: No such module "flag". N'Djamena 1,605,696 Moundou 137,929 11.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Niamey 1,243,500 Zinder 235,605 5.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Nouakchott 1,446,761 Nouadhibou 173,525 8.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Omdurman-Khartoum area 5,490,000 Port Sudan 489,725 11.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Ouagadougou 2,500,000 Bobo Dioulaso 537,728 4.6
Script error: No such module "flag". São Tomé 71,868 Santo Amaro 8,239 8.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Tunis 2,643,695 Sfax 330,440 8.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Victoria 26,450 Anse Boileau 4,093 6.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Windhoek 325,858 Walvis Bay 62,096 5.2

Asia

Country Primate Population Second largest Population Relative primacy
Script error: No such module "flag". Amman 4,425,000 Irbid 750,000 5.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Ashgabat 1,168,000 Türkmenabat 253,000 4.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Baghdad 8,126,755 Mosul 1,792,000 4.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Baku 2,934,000 Ganja 335,000 8.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Bandar Seri Begawan 280,000 Kuala Belait 70,000 4.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Bangkok[29] 16,255,900[Note 1] Chiang Mai[30] 1,213,000 13.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Beirut[25] 2,781,000 Tripoli 365,000 7.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Bishkek[25] 1,297,000 Osh 282,000 4.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Colombo 5,648,000 Kandy 125,400 45.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Dhaka 22,478,116 Chittagong 5,252,842 4.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Dili 235,000 Baucau 15,000 15.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Dushanbe 1,390,000 Khujand 182,000 7.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Gaza City 766,331 Hebron 308,750 2.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Istanbul[31] 15,569,856 Ankara[32] 5,187,949 3.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Jakarta 32,594,159 Surabaya 9,958,656 3.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Kabul[25] 4,834,000 Kandahar 570,000 8.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Kathmandu 3,941,000 Pokhara 523,000 9.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Kuala Lumpur 9,085,737 George Town 2,815,278 3.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Kuwait City[25] 4,022,000 Al Jahra 400,000 10.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Malé 135,000 Addu City 34,000 4.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Metro Manila 13,484,000 Metro Cebu 3,166,000 4.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Muscat 1,205,000 Salalah 340,000 3.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Phnom Penh[25] 2,177,000 Siem Reap 140,000 15.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Pyongyang 2,228,000 Hamhung 535,000 4.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Seoul 26,085,040 Busan 6,804,956 3.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Tashkent 3,492,000 Samarkand 1,201,000 2.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Tbilisi 1,207,000 Batumi 200,000 6.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Tehran 13,633,000 Mashhad 3,167,000 4.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Tel Aviv[33] 4,054,570[Note 2] Jerusalem 1,075,800[Note 3] 3.77
Script error: No such module "flag". Thimphu 115,000 Phuntsholing 28,000 4.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Tokyo[34] 41,000,000 Keihanshin (Osaka) 19,060,000 2.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Vientiane 1,058,000 Savannakhet 120,000 8.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Ulaanbaatar[25] 1,508,000 Erdenet 100,000 15.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Yangon[35] 7,360,703 Mandalay 1,726,889 4.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Yerevan[25] 1,403,000 Gyumri 130,000 10.8
Script error: No such module "flag". Sana'a 3,300,000 Aden 1,154,000 2.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Karachi[36] 18,868,021 Lahore[37] 13,004,135 1.5

Script error: No such module "wide image".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". For the Philippines, figures are for Metro Manila and Metro Cebu. Manila is the national capital, which is within Metro Manila, a region. Meanwhile, Cebu City is the capital city of the province of Cebu, with Metro Cebu being its main urban center. Metro Manila is within Mega Manila, the megapolis that has a population of around 25 million.

For Malaysia, data for Kuala Lumpur includes the surrounding state of Selangor and the Federal Territory of Putrajaya; while data for George Town includes the entire State of Penang and adjoining regions of Kulim and Kuala Muda (Sungai Petani) in the neighboring State of Kedah.

In Vietnam, Hanoi (population 8,053,663) is the primate city of Northern Vietnam, having 3.97 times the population of the area's second largest, Haiphong (2,028,514). Ho Chi Minh City (population 8,993,082) is the primate city of Southern Vietnam, having 7.28 times the population of the area's second largest, Cần Thơ (1,235,171). However, there's no primate city in Central Vietnam as the most populous city (Da Nang, population 1,134,310) has nearly the same population of the area's next largest (Huế, population 1,128,620). See also: List of cities in Vietnam

Europe

Country Primate Population Second largest Population Relative primacy
Script error: No such module "flag". Athens[25][38] 3,753,783 Thessaloniki 1,084,001 3.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Belgrade 1,681,405 Novi Sad 368,967 4.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Bucharest 2,272,163 Cluj-Napoca 411,379 5.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Budapest[39] 3,303,786 Debrecen 237,888 13.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Chișinău 736,100 Tiraspol (de jure)[Note 4] 135,700 5.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Copenhagen[38][39] 2,016,285 Aarhus 330,639 6.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Dublin[40] 1,263,219 Cork 222,526 5.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Helsinki 1,522,694[Note 5] Tampere 385,610 3.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Berlin 3,685,265[41] Hamburg 1,862,565[41] 2.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Kyiv[42] 2,952,301 Kharkiv 1,421,125 2.1
Script error: No such module "flag". London[43][39] 14,257,962 Birmingham 3,683,000 3.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Luxembourg 107,247 Esch-sur-Alzette 32,600 3.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Madrid[44] 3,422,416 Barcelona 1,686,208 2.03
Script error: No such module "flag". Minsk 2,101,018 Gomel 526,872 4.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Moscow[20][21][22] 13,010,112 St. Petersburg 5,601,911 2.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Oslo[45] 1,110,887 Bergen[45] 273,626 4.05
Script error: No such module "flag". Paris[38][46][43][39] 12,405,426 Lyon 2,237,676 5.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Prague 1,397,880[47] Brno 402,739[47] 3.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Reykjavík 209,680[Note 6] Akureyri 18,191 11.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Riga[25][38] 605,273 Daugavpils 77,779 7.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Rome[48][49] 2,746,984 Milan 1,366,155 2.01
Script error: No such module "flag". Skopje 422,540[50][51] Kumanovo 75,051[52] 5.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Sofia 1,681,666 Plovdiv 544,628 3.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Stockholm[53][54][55][56][57] 2,415,139[Note 7] Gothenburg 1,080,980 2.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Tallinn 437,619 Tartu 95,009 4.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Tirana 800,986 Durrës 201,110 4.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Vienna[25][46][39] 2,600,000 Graz 302,660 8.6
Script error: No such module "flag". Vilnius 600,876 Kaunas 304,524 2.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Zagreb 1,113,111 Split 349,314 3.2

In Germany, Munich (city proper population ca 1.5 million, with surrounding Landkreise ~3 million) is the primate city of the state of Bavaria, having nearly three times the population than the state's second largest, Nuremberg (ca 500,000 people, metro area ~1.35 million). Likewise, in Hesse, Frankfurt (~750,000 people) is nearly three times larger than the state's second largest, Wiesbaden (~275,000) and they are both part of the Rhine-Main metropolitan area, the largest city outside of the area, Kassel, has a population of ca. 200,000 people.[58]

In Italy, primate cities exist at regional level: capital Rome (~2.7 million) alone has nearly half of the population of the Lazio region and is about 21 times larger than the second largest city Latina, and nearly three quarters of the region's population live in the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital. In Lombardy, Milan at ~1.35 million is seven times larger than second largest Brescia (ca 200,000); in Piedmont, Turin has eight-nine times the population of Novara and Alessandria; in Campania, Naples has 7 times the population of second-largest Salerno and in Liguria, Genoa at ~550,000 has six times the population of second largest La Spezia and the Metropolitan City of Genoa has three times the population of Province of Savona.[59]

There are many more regional primate cities in Europe. If excluding national capitals, examples include Gothenburg in Västra Götaland, Sweden, Bergen in Vestland and Trondheim, Trøndelag in Norway, Tampere in Pirkanmaa, Finland and Aarhus in Midtjylland, Denmark.

In Portugal, the Lisbon Metropolitan Area has around 2.8 million people while the Porto Metropolitan Area, the second biggest and other only official metropolitan area, has around 1.7 million people. These two metropolitan areas have around 40% the country's population and are multiple times larger than the third-biggest city, Braga.

North and Central America

Country Primate Population Second largest Population Relative primacy
Script error: No such module "flag". Basseterre 13,000 Sandy Point Town 3,140 4.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Bridgetown 110,000 Oistins 3,000 36.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Castries 70,000 Gros Islet 22,647 3.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Guatemala City[38][39] 2,749,161 Quetzaltenango 792,530 3.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Havana 2,106,146 Santiago de Cuba 433,099 4.9
Script error: No such module "flag". Kingston 584,627 Portmore 182,153 3.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Kingstown 16,500 Georgetown 1,700 9.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Managua[38] 1,401,687 León 206,264 12.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Mexico City[38][43][39] 20,400,000 Monterrey 5,370,466 4.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Nassau 274,400 Freeport 26,914 10.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Panama City[25] 880,691 La Chorrera 118,521 7.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Port-au-Prince[25] 2,618,894 Cap-Haïtien 274,404 9.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Roseau 16,582 Portsmouth 2,977 5.6
Script error: No such module "flag". San José[25][38][39] 2,158,898 Puerto Limón 58,522 36.9
Script error: No such module "flag". San Salvador[38][39] 2,406,709 Santa Ana 374,830 10.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Santo Domingo 2,908,607 Santiago de los Caballeros 553,091 5.3
Script error: No such module "flag". St. George's 33,734 Grenville 2,400 14.1
Script error: No such module "flag". St. John's 81,799 Liberta 3,301 24.8

Although Belize does not have a primate city, Belize City is more than twice the size of San Ignacio, the country's second-largest city and urban area. Belize City is also the cultural and economic centre of Belize. The country's capital is Belmopan, the third-largest city in Belize.

In the United States, many primate cities exist at the state level. In California, the population of Los Angeles (~4 million) is nearly three times that of the second-largest city in the state, San Diego. Likewise, in Illinois, Chicago has 15 times the population of the state's second-largest city, Aurora, which itself is a suburb of Chicago, and 18 times the population of Rockford, the state's fifth-largest city and the largest outside of the Chicago metropolitan area, which comprises nearly two-thirds of the state's population. In New York, New York City, with a 2022 population of about 8.3 million, is more than 30 times larger than the state's second-largest city of Buffalo. Erie County, where Buffalo is located, is the eighth-largest county in the state and the largest outside of the New York metropolitan area, with around 950,000 residents; on the other hand, New York City alone contains four of the six largest counties in the state, each with at least 1.35 million residents.[60]

Canada also has several primate cities at the provincial level: Vancouver, BC; Winnipeg, MB; Toronto, ON; Montreal, QC; Halifax, NS; and St. John's, NL.

Oceania

Country Primate Population Second largest Population Relative primacy
Script error: No such module "flag". Apia 36,735 Afega 1,781 20.6
Template:Flagicon New Zealand Auckland Template:NZ population data 2018 Christchurch Template:NZ population data 2018 Template:Rnd
Script error: No such module "flag". Funafuti 6,025 Asau 650 9.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Honiara 64,609 Auki 7,785 8.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Nukuʻalofa 24,571 Neiafu 6,000 4.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Port Moresby 410,954 Lae 76,255 5.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Suva 175,399 Lautoka 52,220 3.4
Script error: No such module "flag". South Tarawa 50,182 Abaiang 5,502 9.1

Australia does not have a primate city, but at the state level, each of the capital cities of the states and territories act as the primate city of that state or territory.

South America

Country Primate Population Second largest Population Relative primacy
Script error: No such module "flag". Gran Asunción[25] 2,698,401 Ciudad del Este 293,817 9.2
Script error: No such module "flag". Buenos Aires[43][39] 12,741,364 Córdoba 1,528,000 8.3
Script error: No such module "flag". Georgetown 118,363 Linden 29,298 4.0
Script error: No such module "flag". Lima[39] 9,752,000 Arequipa 1,034,736 9.4
Script error: No such module "flag". Montevideo[25][39] 1,947,604 Salto 104,028 18.7
Script error: No such module "flag". Paramaribo 240,924 Lelydorp 19,910 12.1
Script error: No such module "flag". Santiago[25] 6,685,685 Valparaíso 1,036,127 6.5
Script error: No such module "flag". Bogotá 8,034,649 Medellín 3,591,963 2.2

Brazil does not have a primate city, but Brazilian state capitals typically act as the primate city for their respective state.[61]

See also

Notes

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  1. ↑ based on Bangkok Metropolitan Region
  2. ↑ based on Tel Aviv metropolitan area
  3. ↑ based on Greater Jerusalem. This figure includes both West and East Jerusalem, and other localities of the Israeli Jerusalem District, but does not include adjacent localities in the West Bank, be they Israeli settlements such as Ma'ale Adumim or Palestinian localities such as Ramallah and Bethlehem.
  4. ↑ Tiraspol is controlled and claimed by the unrecognised Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, the largest city and capital within the PMR (Transnistria). Otherwise, the second largest city controlled by Moldova, and the third largest within its recognised borders is Bălți, with a population of 102,457. The de facto relative primacy would therefore be 7.18.
  5. ↑ based on Helsinki metropolitan area
  6. ↑ based on Capital Region (Iceland)
  7. ↑ based on Stockholm metro area

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References

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  1. ↑ Latin: 'prime', 'first rank'Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
    From Old French or French primat, from a noun use of Latin primat-, from primus
  2. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Brunn, Stanley, et al. Cities of the World. Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2003
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Kipnis, B. (2004). Tel Aviv, Israel - a world city in evolution: Urban development at a deadend of the global economy. Dela, 21, 183–193. Script error: No such module "webarchive"., "Tel Aviv [...] has been Israel's primate urban agglomeration since the 1920s (Reichmann 1972). Since the late 1980s it has evolved into the hard core of Israel's post-industrial globally oriented economy, its post-modern physical ambience and its social and cultural lifestyle."
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  59. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  60. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

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