Parliamentary republic
Template:Short description Template:Republicanism sidebar A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.[1][2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence. In general, parliamentary republics grant the highest sovereign powers to the parliament.Template:Systems of government
Powers
Script error: No such module "Unsubst". In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[1][2]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.
Historical development
Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.[3]
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
Commonwealth of Nations
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Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu and since 30 November 2021, Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
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| Full parliamentary republics | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country/territory | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| File:Flag of Albania.svg Albania | Bajram Begaj | Parliament, by three-fifths majority | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Armenia.svg Armenia | Vahagn Khachaturyan | Parliament, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018[note 1] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Austria.svg Austria | Alexander Van der Bellen | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1945 | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss) | |
| File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg Bangladesh | Mohammed Shahabuddin | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 2] | Presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Barbados.svg Barbados | Sandra Mason | Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination | Bicameral | 2021 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | |
| File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg Bosnia and Herzegovina | Denis Bećirović Željka Cvijanović Željko Komšić |
Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| Template:Flagicon Bulgaria | Rumen Radev | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
| Template:Flagicon Croatia | Zoran Milanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Czech Republic | Petr Pavel | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | Bicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
| File:Flag of Dominica.svg Dominica | Sylvanie Burton | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1978 | Associated state of the United Kingdom | |
| File:Flag of Estonia.svg Estonia | Alar Karis | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1991[note 3] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
| File:Flag of Ethiopia.svg Ethiopia | Taye Atske Selassie | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Fiji.svg Fiji | Naiqama Lalabalavu | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2014 | Military dictatorship | |
| File:Flag of Finland.svg Finland | Alexander Stubb | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000[note 4] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Georgia.svg Georgia | Mikheil Kavelashvili (disputed)Template:Efn | Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority (since 2024; previously direct election, by two-round system) | Unicameral | 2018[note 5] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Germany.svg Germany | Frank-Walter Steinmeier | Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegatesTemplate:Efn), by absolute majority[4] | Two unicameral institutionsTemplate:Efn[5] | 1949Template:Efn | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Greece.svg Greece | Katerina Sakellaropoulou | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1975 | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | |
| File:Flag of Hungary.svg Hungary | Tamás Sulyok | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1990 | One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic) | |
| File:Flag of Iceland.svg Iceland | Halla Tómasdóttir | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1944 | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | |
| File:Flag of India.svg India | Droupadi Murmu | Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1950 | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | |
| File:Flag of Iraq.svg Iraq | Abdul Latif Rashid | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral[note 6] | 2005 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Ireland.svg Ireland | Michael D. Higgins | Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1949[note 7] | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) 1936–1949: ambiguous |
|
| File:Flag of Israel.svg Israel | Isaac Herzog | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-parliamentary republic | |
| File:Flag of Italy.svg Italy | Sergio Mattarella | Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots | Bicameral | 1946 | Constitutional monarchy | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. |
| File:Flag of Kosovo.svg Kosovo | Vjosa Osmani | Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | Unicameral | 2008 | UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia) | |
| File:Flag of Latvia.svg Latvia | Edgars Rinkēvičs | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 8] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
| File:Flag of Lebanon.svg Lebanon | Joseph Aoun | Parliament | Unicameral | 1941 | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | |
| File:Flag of Malta.svg Malta | George Vella | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1974 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[6])[7] | |
| File:Flag of Mauritius.svg Mauritius | Dharam Gokhool | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1992 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[8][9])[7] | |
| File:Flag of Moldova.svg Moldova | Maia Sandu | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) |
Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Montenegro.svg Montenegro | Jakov Milatović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1992 | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | |
| File:Flag of Nepal.svg Nepal | Ram Chandra Poudel | Parliament and state legislators | Bicameral[10] | 2008[note 9] | Constitutional monarchy | |
| Template:Country data North Macedonia | Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Pakistan | Asif Ali Zardari | Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 2010[11][12] | Assembly-independent republic | |
| File:Flag of Poland.svg Poland | Andrzej Duda | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1989 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Samoa.svg Samoa | Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II | Parliament | Unicameral | 1960 | Trust Territory of New Zealand | |
| File:Flag of Serbia.svg Serbia | Aleksandar Vučić | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro) | |
| File:Flag of Singapore.svg Singapore | Tharman Shanmugaratnam | Direct election (since 1993) | Unicameral | 1965 | State of Malaysia | |
| File:Flag of Slovakia.svg Slovakia | Peter Pellegrini | Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | Unicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
| File:Flag of Slovenia.svg Slovenia | Nataša Pirc Musar | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| File:Flag of Somalia.svg Somalia | Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | Parliament | Bicameral | 2012[note 10] | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Trinidad and Tobago | Christine Kangaloo | Parliament | Bicameral | 1976 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[13])[7] | |
| File:Flag of Togo (3-2).svg Togo | Faure Gnassingbé | Parliament | Unicameral | 2024 | Presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Vanuatu.svg Vanuatu | Nikenike Vurobaravu | Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | Unicameral | 1980 | British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | |
| Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| File:Flag of Botswana.svg Botswana | Duma Boko | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1966 | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | |
| File:Flag of Kiribati.svg Kiribati | Taneti Maamau | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1979 | Protectorate | Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.[14] |
| File:Flag of Guyana.svg Guyana | Irfaan Ali | Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote[15] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1980 | Full parliamentary republic | |
| File:Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg Marshall Islands | Hilda Heine | Parliament | Bicameral | 1979 | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | |
| File:Flag of Nauru.svg Nauru | David Adeang | Parliament | Unicameral | 1968 | UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | |
| File:Flag of South Africa.svg South Africa | Cyril Ramaphosa | Parliament, by majority | Bicameral | 1961 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[16][17][18])[7] | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. |
| File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | Chan Santokhi | Parliament[19] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1987 | Full parliamentary republic | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1975–1980; adopted an executive presidency in 1987 after the military coup period from 1980–1987, when the president was given executive powers and the prime minister title became vice-president. |
| Assembly-independent systems | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Assembly-independent republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| File:Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg Federated States of Micronesia | Wesley Simina | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1986 | UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.[20] |
| File:Flag of San Marino.svg San Marino | Francesca Civerchia Dalibor Riccardi |
Parliament | Unicameral | 1291 | Theocracy (part of the Papal States) | Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent |
| Directorial systems | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| File:Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg Switzerland | Guy Parmelin Ignazio Cassis Albert Rösti Élisabeth Baume-Schneider Beat Jans Karin Keller-Sutter Viola Amherd |
Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses | Bicameral | 1848 | Confederation of states | Also has citizen-initiated referendums |
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See also
- List of countries by system of government
- Constitutional monarchy
- Parliamentary system
- Republic
- Republicanism
- Semi-presidential system
- Semi-parliamentary system
Notes
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- ↑ Changed after the 2015 referendum.
- ↑ Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
- ↑ Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
- ↑ Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 Template:ISBN), he quotes Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1". as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
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- ↑ Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
- ↑ The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
- ↑ Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
- ↑ Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
- ↑ Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.
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References
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- ↑ Every list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President
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- ↑ President must have 2/3rd majority vote in parliament. Voting happens twice if there is no majority vote at the first vote for a candidate. If no 2/3rd majority vote after second vote, then parliament moves this to the VVV (Vereenigde Volksvergadering, where all the members of Parliament and district and resort counsel members will vote for the president. Majority vote decides who becomes president.
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de:Parlamentarisches Regierungssystem#Parlamentarische Republik