Menominee language

Menominee (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell), also spelled Menomini (endonym: ) is a critically endangered Algonquian language spoken by the Menominee people of what is now northern Wisconsin in the United States. The federally recognized tribe has been working to encourage revival of use of the language by intensive classes locally and partnerships with universities. Most of the fluent speakers are elderly. Many of the people use English as their first language.

The name of the tribe, and the language, derived from , comes from the word for 'wild rice'. The tribe has gathered and cultivated this native food as a staple for millennia. The Ojibwa, their neighbors to the north who are one of the Anishinaabe peoples and also speak an Algonquian language, also use this term for them. The language is called but also or

The main characteristics of Menominee, as compared to other Algonquian languages, are its extensive use of the low front vowel , its rich negation morphology, and its lexicon. Some scholars (notably Bloomfield and Sapir) have classified it as a Central Algonquian language based on its phonology.

Good sources of information on the Menominee tribe and their language include Leonard Bloomfield's 1928 bilingual text collection, his 1962 grammar (considered a landmark study), and Skinner's earlier anthropological work.

Usage and revitalization efforts

Menominee is a highly endangered language, as there are only a handful of fluent speakers left. According to a 1997 report by the Menominee Historic Preservation Office, 39 people spoke Menominee as their first language, all of whom were elderly; 26 spoke it as their second language; and 65 others had learned some of it for the purpose of understanding the language and/or teaching it to others.

The Menominee Language & Culture Commission was established by the Menominee Nation to promote the continued use of the language. In the 21st century, residents of the Menominee reservation at Keshena have held intensive classes for learners of all ages, and have worked with linguists from the University of Wisconsin–Madison to document the language and to develop curriculum and learning materials. A Menominee dictionary project, led by Monica Macaulay, has resulted in the publication of modern dictionaries of the language in support of revitalization efforts.

In 1977, Menominee High School, founded when "the Indians of the Menominee Reservation separated from the Shawano-Gresham School District to open their own district", began to offer Menominee language, drumming, and tribal dance in addition to its academic program.

Classes in the Menominee language are available locally at preschool, high school and adult levels, and at the College of Menominee Nation and University of Wisconsin–Green Bay.

In 2012, the Catholic Diocese of Green Bay issued an apology to "a seventh-grader who was punished after using her native Menominee language in the classroom" in Shawano, Wisconsin.

As of 2013, there are "six or seven people ... able to be conversational in the language", according to an article on the Menominee Place Names Map, a collaborative project at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point.

Orthography and phonology

Below are the basic orthography and phonemes (represented in IPA) of Menominee.Template:Sfn

Consonants

	Labial	Alveolar	Post-alveolar/ Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Plosive/Affricate	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Fricative		Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Approximant			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

• Template:IPAslink is postdental.
• The unvoiced sibilant Template:IPAslink can range between Template:IPAblink and Template:IPAblink.
• Template:IPAslink and Template:IPAslink do not appear initially, except sometimes as the on-glide of a vowel. Final Template:IPAslink after Template:IPAslink is sometimes dropped and sometimes replaced with Template:IPAslink, as in Template:Gloss.

Consonants, including nasals, are palatalized before front vowels and labialized before back vowels.

Menominee does not make contrasts between voiced and voiceless stops and voicing from a following vowel may set in before the opening is complete.

Vowels

Monophthongs

	Front		Central	Back
	short	long	short	short	long
Close	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Mid	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	(Template:IPA link Template:Angbr)	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Open	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link~Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

Diphthongs

Long	Short
Template:Angbr	Template:Angbr
Template:Angbr	Template:Angbr

• Long or is labialized if the preceding syllable contains a back vowel or when it is followed by a palatalized consonant. The same is true for
• Short is particularly open when found before Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr.
• is consistently lengthened before .
• and are treated like long vowels in the assignment of stress. They contrast with and . For example, ('he uses it') is distinct from ('fish egg'). Final after becomes primarily bilabial. The syllable can alternate with for some speakers.
• & /, which are usually written ⟨ae a͞e⟩, can also be written as ⟨æ ǣ⟩ particullarly in handwritten text

Vowels are slightly nasalized before or after or .

Syllable structure and stress

Syllable structure in Menominee is typically VC(C) or C(C)VC(C); syllables do not end in vowels. Any consonant can begin or end a syllable except Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr. The only clusters which can occur at the end of a syllable are Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr. The only cluster which can begin a syllable is Template:Angbr.

Primary stress occurs on every long vowel or diphthong that is in the next-to-last syllable of a word. Most compounds and inflected forms are treated as single words in assigning stress. Rhetorical stress comes on the last syllable.

Pitch

In an interrogative sentence which uses a question word, there is a rising and then falling of pitch near the beginning and a drop at the end. In yes–no questions, there is a sharp rise in pitch at the end of the sentence. The modulations of pitch for expressing exclamations, quotations, etc. is generally much more pronounced in Menominee than in English.

Grammar

Lexical categories

Bloomfield states there are five overarching categories in Menominee: noun, pronoun, negator, verb, and particle. Nouns, pronouns, negators, and verbs all take inflection whereas particles do not carry any morphology.Template:Sfn

Agreement

Agreement morphology in Menominee can be fusional, e.g. animacy and number (nouns), are indicated within the same affix.

Animacy

All nouns are split into two categories and are inflected for animacy and are classified as either animate or inanimate. Animacy in Menominee is a grammatical construct for noun classification and not a reflection of the noun's status as "living" or "non-living." Therefore, some semantically inherently inanimate objects are grammatically animate.

Number

All nouns are required to be inflected if they are plural. Nouns which are singular are unmarked.Template:Sfn

Person marking

Menominee has four grammatical persons: first, second, third, and indefinite.Template:Sfn

Nouns

Agreement morphology

Noun classes are split based on grammatical gender into two categories: animate and inanimate. Additionally, all nouns must be marked for plurality. Plurality agreement are suffixes that attach to noun stems. Singular forms are unmarked (represented by zero morpheme ∅) and plural has two forms, as shown in the table below.Template:Sfn

	Inanimate	Animate
Singular	-∅
Plural	-an	-ak

These suffixes are attached directly to noun stems or to possessed themes. Examples below show singular and plural inflections of both animate and inanimate nouns:Template:Sfn

	Stem	Singular	Plural
Inanimate	Template:Gloss	→	→
	Template:Gloss	→	→
Animate	Template:Gloss	→	→
	Template:Gloss	→	→

There are four personal prefixes used to modify nouns and in personal pronouns:

• 1st person:
• 2nd person: (also used for inclusive 1st person plural)
• 3rd person:
• indefinite:

Certain nouns occur only in possessed forms, typically referring to body parts or relatives, such as , 'son'; , 'your (s.) foot'; , 'someone's foot'. These affixes are used to indicate possession (e.g. 'my older sister'; , 'my stone'). They are also used in the inflection of verbs to indicate the actor.

The personal pronouns formed by these prefixes are as follows:

	Singular	Plural
1st	'I'	'(exclusive) we'
		'(inclusive) we'
2nd	'you'	'you (plural)'
3rd	'he/she/it'	'they'

Nouns and nearly all pronouns are inflected for singular and plural. Some nouns occur only as singulars, typically denoting liquids or other uncountable substances (e.g. , 'coffee'). The singular is often used for a representative meaning, e.g. , 'the way the Menomini lives'.

Nouns can also be inflected for locality:

• , 'house'
• , 'in a house'
• , 'this'
• , 'right here'

Diminutives can be formed from any noun by suffixing .

Agent nouns (i.e., nouns that mean one who does the action of the verb, such as worker from work, talker from talk, in English) are homonymous with the third person inflected verb. So,

• , 'he works' or 'worker'
• , 'he whittles' or 'carpenter'

Verbs

Menominee displays inflectional reference. Nouns, verbs, and objects are inflected to agree in gender, person, and number of their possessor, actor, or transitive verb, respectively.

Intransitive verbs typically occur in two forms: one for animate actors, the other for inanimate actors:

• , 'he falls'
• , 'it falls'

Transitive verbs can be used with either animate or inanimate actors. Transitive verbs contain inflectional reference both to their subject and to the object. One form of the verb exists for animate objects and another for inanimate objects:

• , 'he fears him'
• , 'he fears it'

Impersonal verbs occur with no identifiable actor and in the singular inflection:

• , 'it is cold'
• , 'it is raining'

The negator typically precedes the verb: , 'it is not raining'. The negator also inflects for certain elements of modal inflection: , 'why, it isn't raining anymore!' It can be used alone to answer a yes–no question. The particle is used to negate imperatives: , 'don't be too late'.

Bloomfield distinguishes five modes of the verb in Menominee, which are reflected in the verb, negator, personal and demonstrative pronouns, and auxiliary verbs:

• Indicative: , 'he comes'

The indicative makes statements. In the first-person plural, it is used as a hortatory (first person plural imperative: , 'let's set out'

• Quotative: , 'it is said that he comes'
  • The quotative typically ends in and is used when the speaker is stating something learned from another person or from a dream or vision. It is the mode used in traditional narrative.
• Interrogative: , 'is he coming?'
  • The interrogative is used for yes–no questions.
• Present: , 'so he is coming'
  • The present mode, typically ending in or , puts an emphasis on the fact that the event is taking place in the present, as opposed to the past or in contrast with expectation.
• Preterit: , 'he did formerly come'
  • The preterit, typically ending in or , puts an emphasis on the fact that the event took place in the past, as opposed to in the present or in contrast with expectation.

Language family

Menominee is one of the Algonquian languages, which are part of the larger family of Algic languages. Goddard (1996) and Mithun (1999) classify it with the Central and Plains Algonquian languages along with languages like Blackfoot, Arapaho, Cheyenne, the Cree languages, and Eastern Great Lakes languages like Ojibwe.

External links

• Wisconsin Tribal Languages in Danger of Dying OutTemplate:Category handler
• Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin Language & Culture Commission
• Native Languages of the Americas: Menominee
• Menominee Language Lessons
• The Meaning of the Menominee Myth of the Flood--in Relation to People Today

• OLAC resources in and about the Menominee language
• Menominee Language Institute: Language Materials - Dictionaries & Word Lists