Manam language

Manam is a Kairiru–Manam language spoken mainly on the volcanic Manam Island, northeast of New Guinea.

Phonology

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Mid	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Low		Template:IPA link

Consonants

	Bilabial		Alveolar		Velar
Stop	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Nasal	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Fricative			(Template:IPA link)Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link)Template:IPA link
Lateral			Template:IPA link
Flap			Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link

Allophony

Some vowels become glides in diphthongs, e.g. , > and , > . and are 'weaker' than and , so that the syllable becomes and not

According to Turner, is more and more often realized as , while some older speakers have .

Syllable structure

The Manam syllable is (C)(V₁)V(V₁)(C₁), the only exception is a syllabic .

There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V₁ cannot be , whereas V must be as long as it is not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C₁ must be a nasal consonant.

Stress

Stress is phonemic: 'palm tree', 'seagull'. The stress falls on one of the three last syllables of a word, and stressing the penult syllable is the most common: 'child', 'work'. If the last syllable ends in a nasal consonant, it will be stressed instead: 'your child'. Some inflections and affixes do not alter the stress of the root word: 'he learned' (i- is a 3rd person prefix), 'in the bush' (-lo is a locative suffix).

In the orthography, stressed vowels can be underlined in order to avoid ambiguities. Ie. Template:Angle bracket 'palm tree', Template:Angle bracket 'seagull'.

Syntax

Word order

The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV:

Predicator

Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause.Template:Rp The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.Template:Rp

Ex. (1): verb phrase predicatorTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (2): noun phrase predicatorTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicatorTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (4): numeral predicatorTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Negation

Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: and . is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst is used for all other cases.Template:Rp

Scope of negation

The use of is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: 'I did not go to the party' is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated; therefore, the act of going to the party is negated; 'not one person went to the party' is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.

Broad scope

A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker before the predicator,Template:Rp as demonstrated in the following examples:

Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 elementTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elementsTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elementsTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Additionally, the negative marker can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses.Template:Rp Compare the following examples:

Ex. (8): negative existential sentenceTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (9): negative possessive sentenceTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Narrow scope

As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.

Ex. (10): narrow scope negationTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated; rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.

Ex. (11): narrow scope negationTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.

Negative quantifiers

Additionally, the negative marker can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers 'one' and 'some' to produce the negative expressions, 'no, not any' and 'no, not any'.Template:Rp These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):

Ex. (12): negation using Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (13): negation using Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

More specifically, is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; comparatively modifies count nouns.Template:Rp Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass nounTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (15): negative quantifier count nounTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Intensified negation

Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element –na and the intensifier suffix to ,Template:Rp as seen in the following example:

Ex. (16): intensifier suffixTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

The buffer element , however, is not included when acts as the predicator of a clause,Template:Rp as seen in the following example:

Ex. (17): intensified predicatorTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using 'little',Template:Rp as seen in the following example:

Ex. (18): intensifier Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

Moreover, 'little' can be used in conjunction with within the same clause, as seen in the following example:Template:Rp

Ex. (19): intensifier + suffix Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

Furthermore, the suffix may be appended to the prohibitive marker (with the presence of the buffer ),Template:Rp as seen in the following example:

Ex. (20): suffix + prohibitive marker Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

Prohibitions

Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause;Template:Rp using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate 'non-specific' events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events.Template:Rp Compare the following examples:

Ex. (21): gerundTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (22): verbal nounTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs

The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix,Template:Rp as seen in the following examples:

Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verbTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NPTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NPTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between and the verb,Template:Rp as in the following example:

Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verbTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns

Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker after the gerund or verbal noun,Template:Rp demonstrated in the following example:

Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal nounTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Template:RpThe distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).Template:Rp

Additionally, the form 'never mind' may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker , as may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund.Template:Rp Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using (following)Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using (preceding) Template:Interlinear

Indirect prohibitive constructions

The negative marker is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speechTemplate:Rp—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:

Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive constructionTemplate:Rp Template:Interlinear

Morphology

Number

Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, paucal, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.

Pronouns

Person		Number
		Singular	Dual	Paucal	Plural
1st	Inclusive
	Exclusive
2nd
3rd

Reduplication

Reduplication can be either leftward () or rightward (). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.

Nouns

Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an agentive marker:

	snake
	worm
	the work
	worker

Adjectives

Here are two examples of how number can be marked on the adjective through the different kinds of reduplication:

Rightward reduplication (singular)

	ripe banana
	the big man

Leftward reduplication (plural)

	ripe bananas
	the big men

The verb

The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes include such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers. Here is a schematical overview of the Manam verb:

Outer prefixes	Verb nucleus			Outer suffixes
	Inner prefixes	Root	Inner suffixes
Subject/mood marking	Manner prefix transitive	Verb root	transitive	Object marking Optional suffixes

Subject marking

The marking of subject is obligatory. In addition to expressing number and person, the pronouns have fused with the mood markers (see below) called realis and irrealis.

Person		Singular		Plural
		Real	Irr	Real	Irr
1st	Inclusive			ta-
	Exclusive
2nd
3rd

Mood

The realis mood (Template:Sc) is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis (Template:Sc) mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker wishes were real.

Manner prefixes

Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc. Template:Interlinear

Object marking

Person		Singular	Plural
1st	Inclusive
	Exclusive
2nd
3rd
		-Ø

Transitivization

There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning intransitive verbs into transitive ones:

• The prefix can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
• The suffix can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
• The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.

These methods can be combined.

Optional suffixes

The object suffixes are also optional, but rather common. Here are a few examples of some of the more unusual suffix types:

Direction Template:Interlinear

Spreading Template:Interlinear

Intensifying Template:Interlinear

Benefactive Template:Interlinear

Adjectives

Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others do not, e.g. 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. 'selfish' (singular) and 'selfish' (plural).

Possession

As in many other Austronesian languages Manam expresses different degrees of possession. In addition to the most common differentiation between alienable and inalienable possession, Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are edible or associated with eating.

Possessive pronouns

Person		Number
		Singular	Dual	Paucal	Plural
1st	Inclusive
	Exclusive
2nd
3rd		-Ø

Inalienable possession

In this class are 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question: Template:Interlinear

Edible possession

In this class are things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word , which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

Alienable possession

In this class are belongings that are voluntary; things that one can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word , which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

Cross-class possession

One notable aspect is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples:

		'my pig' (as part of one's wealth)
		'my pork' (which I am going to eat)
		'my pig' (which I may or may not eat later)

		'my water' (or rather 'body fluids')
		'my water' (to drink)
		'my water' (to wash with)

Demonstratives

Manam has two kinds of demonstratives.Template:Rp This two-way system distinguishes between proximal demonstratives, which indicate proximity to a speaker, and distal demonstratives, which indicate distance from a speaker. Both demonstratives occur after the noun phrase. They are formed from the demonstrative marker , followed by either the proximal suffix or the distal marker , followed by either the third-person singular marker -∅ or the third-person plural marker as shown in the tableTemplate:Rp below:

	Proximal	Distal
Singular	Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear
Plural	Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear

Data from WALS suggests that both the Austronesian and Papuan languages, which are geographically close to the Manam language community, show an approximately even distribution of two-way and three-way distinction systems for demonstratives. In fact, despite Ross's observation that "Schouten family members are … much more closely related to each other than to any other members of the [North New Guinea] Linkage",Template:Rp Kairiru, which like Manam is a member of the Schouten family, shows a three-way distinction in its demonstratives. The reconstructed proto language Proto-Oceanic (POc), from which the Schouten family is descended, was determined to have a three-way distinction system. POc's system is believed to have included an additional demonstrative compared to Manam, the medial demonstrative which indicates an intermediate distance, or proximity to the listener rather than the speaker.Template:Rp However, Manam does show the same noun-demonstrative word order which was reconstructed for POc.Template:Rp

In Manam, the proximal form is often contracted from to .Template:Rp It can also be cliticised to a proceeding word when it is not followed by a suffix. Because the 3sg adnominal suffix has a zero form, can be cliticised for this construction. This means that Examples (1), (2), and (3) are all acceptable ways to construct 'this woman', while example (4) but not Example (5) is an acceptable construction of 'these women'. Template:Interlinear

It is also acceptable to remove the head noun, for instance in the comparative construction in Example (6).Template:Rp Template:Interlinear

Selective forms of proximal demonstratives

A selective form can be derived from the proximal demonstrative (but not the distal demonstrative).Template:Rp It is formed by adding the suffix after the proximal marker and before the adnominal suffix, as per Example (7) below, and indicates selection out of a set or group of options. Template:Interlinear

The selective suffix is optional and is used when it is necessary to express selection explicitly. If not, the basic demonstrative can be used.Template:Rp

Anaphoric usage

Previous examples of the use of the demonstrative in Manam have been exophoric, referring to the world outside of the text. However, they can also be used anaphorically, to reference something previously brought up by a speaker.Template:Rp Although Example (8) below demonstrates that both the proximal and the distal demonstrative can be used anaphorically, the proximal demonstrative is used much more commonly than the distal in this manner. Template:Interlinear

Usage of the proximal demonstrative as a resumptive pro-form

A second anaphoric use of the proximal demonstrative in Manam is as a resumptive pro-form.Template:Rp In this situation, the proximal demonstrative is used to sum up or resume discussing a topic that has already been spoken about. It can be used in reference to a topic discussed within the same sentence, or in an earlier sentence.Template:Rp When it is used to reference a topic within one sentence, the resumptive pro-form will immediately follow its antecedent as in Example (9). Template:Interlinear

When the proximal demonstrative is acting as a resumptive pro-form, it usually takes the from or rather than .Template:Rp The singular form is also more common than the plural form. This can be seen in Example (10) where the singular form is used despite the pro-from referring to a group of items. Template:Interlinear

The resumptive pro-form can be used to reference a clause in order to indicate the time of a second clause, demonstrated by Example (11).Template:Rp It is also commonly used when a noun phrase is modified by a relative clause, as can be seen in Example (12). Template:Interlinear

It is also often used when a sentence is thematised, and can function similarly to a theme-marker even though it does not meet the requirements to be considered a thematiser.Template:Rp In Example (13) below, ('your mattress') is the theme. Template:Interlinear

Directional system and spatial deixis

Manam, like most Oceanic languages, primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system is oriented on a land-sea axis. However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam:

	'toward the sea'
	'toward the land'
	'to one's right when one is facing the sea'
	'to one's left when one is facing the sea'

This directional system has only been attested in four languages: Manam, Boumaa Fijian, Taba, and Savosavo.

The suffix can be added to any of these terms to indicate movement towards that direction, as in Example (3).Template:Rp No suffix is needed to indicate movement away from a direction – this is inferred from the context of the sentence (contrast Examples (1) and (2) with Example (3)). Template:Interlinear

Spatial deixis

Spatial deixis describes how speakers can 'point out' the location of an object in relationship to their own position. Manam has two main spatial deictical terms.Template:Rp  These are ('here') and ('there'). is constructed by suffixing the distal marker to . These two terms are used regardless of which direction the speaker is indicating.Template:Rp If it is necessary to specify direction, this can be done by adding the directional term after the deictical term,Template:Rp as is done in Example (4). Template:Interlinear

Manam has three additional spatial deixis, which are used to specify spatial relationships in a specific direction.Template:Rp These terms refer to the land-sea directional system described above, and are listed below:Template:Rp

	'over there in direction'
	'over there in direction'
	'over there in or direction'

Interestingly, unlike Manam's two-way distinction for demonstratives, these directional spatial deictical terms show the same three-way distinction that was reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic (POc).Template:Rp  To indicate an intermediate distance, the distal suffix can be added to each directional spatial deictic. If the object described is so far away as to be out of sight, the spatial dialectical term can be combined with a directional term to indicate extreme distance.Template:Rp This is illustrated in the table below:Template:Rp

	Least distance	Middle distance	Greatest distance
direction			+ =
direction			+ =
direction			+ =
direction			+ =

Similar to directional terms, to indicate movement towards the most distant directional spatial dialectical terms, the suffix is added as in Example (5). For the less distant terms, no affix is needed, illustrated by Example (6). Template:Interlinear

Abbreviations

AD:adnominal BF:buffer DEMPROX:proximal demonstrative DL:dual EXC:exclusive FOOD:edible INIR:indefinite irrealis IP:independent pronoun IR:irregular LIM:limiter PROX:proximte RESPRO:resumptive pro-form RP:reflexive-possessive RL:realis RPL:reduplication SEL:selective SIM:simulative TC:transitive consonant TRANS:transitiviser

AD	adnominal
BF	buffer
DL	dual
EXC	exclusive
INIR	indefinite irrealis
INSTR	instrumental
INT	intensifier
IP	independent pronoun
IRR	irrealis
LIM	limiter
NEG	negator
NOM	nominaliser
OBJ	object
PL	plural
POSS	possessive
PROH	prohibitive
REAL	realis
RPL	reduplication
SG	singular
SIM	simulative
TRANS	transitiviser

Resources

• Lichtenberk, Frantisek (1983) A grammar of Manam. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No. 18. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press. (Available in JSTOR.)
• Turner, Blaine (1986) A teaching grammar of the Manam language
• Short description of Manam culture
• Paradisec has a number of collections with Manam materials
• Crystal, David (2008) A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.