List of British Jewish politicians
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This is a list of Jews who served as politicians in the United Kingdom and its predecessor states or who were born in the United Kingdom and had notable political careers abroad.
Jewish Leaders
Pre–1900
Benjamin Disraeli (1868–1881) - Leader of the Conservative Party and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
1900–1974
Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel (1931–1935) - Leader of the Liberal Party (UK)
1974–2000
Michael Howard (2003–2005) - Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)
2000–2020
Ed Miliband (2010–2015) - Leader of the Labour Party (UK)
2020-
Zack Polanski (2021-) Deputy Leader of the Green Party (England and Wales)
British MPs
A law in place until the 1850s stated that no member of the Jewish religion could be elected to Parliament. Some Christian denominations were similarly prohibited. If elected, a member would be excluded if he refused to swear an oath of abjuration with a strong Christian wording.
British Members of Parliament listed chronologically by first election date (in brackets)
Pre–1900
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- Lord George Gordon (1774–1780) Converted to Judaism
- Sampson Eardley (1770–1802) Father was Jewish. Eardley was baptised. Tory MP
- Manasseh Masseh Lopes (1802–1806, 1807–1808, 1812–1819 & 1820–1829) Lopes converted to Christianity in 1802, and later the same year he entered Parliament as a Tory MP
- Ralph Lopes (1814–1819, 1831–1837, 1841–1847 & 1849–1854) Conservative MP.
- Ralph Bernal (1818–1841 & 1842–1852) His father was Jewish, but Bernal was baptised. Whig MP
- David Ricardo (1819–1823) Ricardo converted to Christianity in 1793. Whig MP
- David Ricardo (the younger) (1832–1833) His father had been Jewish, but Ricardo was baptised. Liberal MP
- Benjamin Disraeli (1837–1876) [1] Template:Webarchive, Conservative MP and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Born Jewish but baptised at an early age.
- John Lewis Ricardo (1841–1862) Liberal MP
- Ralph Bernal Osborne (1841–1874) His grandfather was Jewish, but Bernal Osborne was baptised. Liberal MP
- Lionel de Rothschild (1847–1868 & 1869–1874) [2], Liberal MP.
- David Salomons (1851–1852 & 1859–1873) Liberal MP.
- Massey Lopes (1857–1885) Conservative MP
- Mayer Amschel de Rothschild (1859–1874) Liberal MP
- Bernhard Samuelson (1859–1895) Liberal MP
- Francis Henry Goldsmid (1860–1878) Liberal MP
- Albert Grant (1865–1868 & 1874) Conservative MP
- Frederick Goldsmid (1865–1866) Liberal MP
- Nathan Rothschild (1865–1885) Liberal MP
- Joseph d'Aguilar Samuda (1865–1880) Liberal MP
- Julian Goldsmid (1866–1896) Liberal and later Liberal Unionist MP
- Henry Samuelson (1868–1885) Liberal MP
- George Jessel (1868–1873) Liberal MP
- Henry Lopes (1868–1876) Conservative MP
- John Simon(1868–1888) Liberal MP
- Farrer Herschell (1874–1885) Liberal MP
- Saul Isaac (1874–1880) Conservative MP
- Henry Drummond Wolff (1874–1885) Conservative MP
- Arthur Cohen (1880–1888) Liberal MP
- Henry de Worms (1880–1895) Conservative MP
- Harry Levy-Lawson (1885–1892, 1893–1895, 1905–1906 & 1910–1916) Liberal and later Liberal Unionist MP
- Lionel Louis Cohen (1885–1887) Conservative MP
- Lewis Henry Isaacs (1885–1892) Conservative MP
- James Alfred Jacoby (1885-1909) Liberal MP
- Samuel Montagu (1885–1900) Liberal MP
- Ferdinand de Rothschild (1885–1898) Liberal and later Liberal Unionist Party MP
- Herbert Jessel (1896–1906 & 1910–1918) Liberal Unionist and later Conservative MP
- Sydney Stern (1891–1895) Liberal MP
- Herbert Leon (1891–1895) Liberal MP[1]
- Benjamin Cohen (1892–1906) Conservative MP
- Coningsby Disraeli (1892–1906) Conservative MP
- Henry Lopes (1892–1900) Conservative MP
- Gustav Wilhelm Wolff (1892–1910) Conservative MP
- Harry Marks (1895–1900 & 1904–1910) Conservative MP
- Harry Samuel (1895–1906 & 1910–1922) Conservative MP
- Arthur Strauss (1895–1900 & 1910–1918) Liberal Unionist Party and later Conservative MP
- Sigismund Mendl (1898–1900) Liberal MP
- Walter Rothschild (1899–1910) Liberal Unionist and later Conservative MP
- Edward Sassoon (1899–1912) Liberal Unionist MP
1900–1939
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- Francis Lucas (1900–1906) Conservative MP
- Stuart Samuel (1900–1916) Liberal MP
- Herbert Samuel (1902–1918 & 1929–1935) Liberal MP and Leader of the Liberal Party
- Rufus Isaacs (1904–1913) Liberal MP
- Charles Henry (1906–1919) Liberal MP
- Arthur Lever (1906–1910 & 1922–1923) Liberal MP
- Maurice Levy (1906–1918) Liberal MP
- Philip Magnus (1906–1922) Conservative MP
- Alfred Mond (1906–1928) Liberal and then Conservative MP
- Edwin Samuel Montagu (1906–1922) Liberal MP
- Horatio Myer (1906–1910) Liberal MP
- Harry Primrose (1906–1910) Liberal MP
- Herbert Raphael (1906–1918) Liberal MP
- Bertram Straus (1906–1910) Liberal MP
- Edward Strauss (1906–1910, 1910–1923, 1927–1929 & 1931–1939) Liberal and then Liberal National MP
- Felix Cassel (1910–1916) Conservative MP
- Sydney Goldman (1910–1918) Conservative MP
- Frank Goldsmith (1910–1918) Conservative MP
- Trebitsch Lincoln (1910) Liberal MP
- Neil Primrose (1910–1917) Liberal MP
- Lionel Nathan de Rothschild (1910–1923) Conservative MP
- Maurice de Forest (1911–1918) – Liberal MP
- Leo Amery (1911–1945) Conservative MP
- Samuel Samuel (1913–1934) Conservative MP
- Percy Alfred Harris (1916–1918 & 1922–1945) Liberal MP
- Brunel Cohen (1918-1931), Conservative MP
- Gerald Hurst (1918–1923 & 1924–1935) Conservative MP
- Edward Manville (1918–1923) Conservative MP
- Arthur Samuel (1918–1937) Conservative MP
- Walter de Frece (1920–1931) Conservative MP
- Robert Gee (1921–1922 & 1924–1927) – Conservative MP
- Maurice Alexander (1922–1923) Liberal MP
- Alfred Butt (1922–1936), Conservative MP
- Manny Shinwell (1922–1924, 1928–1931 & 1935–1970) Labour MP
- Leonard Benjamin Franklin (1923–1924) Liberal MP
- Ernest Spero (1923–1924 & 1929–1930) Liberal and then Labour MP
- Leslie Haden-Guest (1923–1927 & 1937–1950) Labour MP
- Leslie Hore-Belisha (1923–1945), Liberal and then Liberal National MP
- Henry Mond (1923–1924 & 1929–1931) Liberal and then Conservative MP
- Joseph Sunlight (1923–1924) Liberal MP
- Moss Turner-Samuels (1923–1924 & 1945–1957) Labour MP
- Harry Day (1924–1931 & 1935–1939) Labour MP
- Samuel Finburgh (1924-1929) Conservative MP
- Frank Meyer (1924–1929) Conservative MP
- Isidore Salmon (1924–1941) Conservative MP
- Henry Slesser (1924–1929) Labour MP
- Michael Marcus (1929–1931) Labour MP
- Harry Louis Nathan (1929–1935 & 1937–1940), Liberal and then Labour MP
- Marion Phillips (1929–1931) Labour MP
- James de Rothschild (1929–1945) Liberal MP
- George Strauss (1929–1931 & 1934–1979) Labour MP
- Alfred Beit (1931–1945) Conservative MP
- Alfred Chotzner (1931–1934) Conservative MP
- Louis Gluckstein (1931–1945) Conservative MP
- Barnett Janner (1931–1935 & 1945–1970) Liberal and then Labour MP[2]
- Dudley Joel (1931–1941) Conservative MP[3]
- Thomas Levy (1931–1945) Conservative MP
- Abraham Lyons (1931–1945) Conservative MP
- Marcus Samuel (1934–1942) Conservative MP
- Henry Strauss (1935–1945 & 1946–1955) Conservative MP
- Sydney Silverman (1935–1968) Labour MP[4]
- Daniel Frankel (1935–1945) Labour MP
- Lewis Silkin (1936–1950) Labour MP[5]
- Daniel Lipson (1937–1950) Independent Conservative MP
1940–1973
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- John Mack (1942–1951) Labour MP
- Herschel Lewis Austin (1945–1950) Labour MP
- Louis Comyns (1945–1950) Labour MP
- John Diamond (1945–1951 & 1957–1970) Labour MP[6]
- Maurice Edelman (1945–1976) Labour MP[7]
- Mont Follick, (1945–1955) Labour MP
- Harold Lever (1945–1979) Labour MP[8]
- George Jeger (1945–1971) Labour MP
- Santo Jeger (1945–1953) Labour MP
- Benn Levy (1945–1950) Labour MP
- Marcus Lipton (1945–1978) Labour MP
- Ian Mikardo (1945–1959 & 1964–1987) Labour MP[9]
- Maurice Orbach (1945–1959 & 1964–1979) Labour MP
- Phil Piratin (1945–1950) Communist Party of Great Britain MP[10]
- Samuel Segal (1945–1950) Labour MP
- Julius Silverman (1945–1983) Labour MP
- Barnett Stross (1945–1966) Labour MP
- David Weitzman (1945–1979) Labour MP
- Austen Albu, (1948–1974) Labour MP
- Julian Amery (1950–1992) Conservative MP
- Leslie Lever (1950–1970) Labour MP
- Gerald Nabarro (1950–1973) Conservative MP[11]
- Frank Allaun (1955–1983) Labour MP
- Henry d'Avigdor-Goldsmid (1955–1974) Conservative MP[12]
- Keith Joseph (1956–1987) Conservative MP[13]
- Philip Goodhart (1957–1992) Conservative MP[14]
- Leo Abse (1958–1987) Labour MP[15]
- Michael Cliffe (1958–1964) Labour MP
- Myer Galpern (1959–1979) Labour MPScript error: No such module "Unsubst".
- David Ginsburg (1959–1983) Labour and later Social Democratic Party MP
- John Mendelson (1959–1978) Labour MP
- John Silkin (1963–1987) Labour MP[16]
- Joel Barnett (1964–1983), Labour MP[17]
- Edmund Dell (1964–1979) Labour MP[18]
- Jack Dunnett (1964–1983), Labour MP[19]
- Reginald Freeson (1964–1987), Labour MP[20]
- David Kerr (1964–1970) Labour MP
- Robert Maxwell (1964–1970) Labour MP
- Henry Solomons (1964–1965) Labour MP
- Maurice Miller (1964–1987) Labour MP
- Paul Rose (1964–79) Labour MP
- Samuel Silkin (1964–1983) Labour MP[21]
- Robert Sheldon (1964–2001), Labour MP
- Renée Short (1964–1987) Labour MP
- Stanley Henig (1966-1970) Labour MP
- Edward Lyons (1966–1983) Labour and later Social Democratic Party MP
- Eric Moonman (1966–1970 & 1974–1979) Labour MP
- Robert Adley[11] (1970–1993) Conservative MP
- Jack d'Avigdor-Goldsmid[22] (1970–1974) Conservative MP
- Sally Oppenheim-Barnes (1970–1987) Conservative MP[23]
- Stanley Clinton-Davis (1970–1983) Labour MP
- Michael Fidler[24] (1970–1974) Conservative MP
- Geoffrey Finsberg (1970–1992) Conservative MP
- Greville Janner (1970–1997)[25] Labour MP
- Toby Jessel[26] (1970–1997) Conservative MP
- Gerald Kaufman (1970–2017),[27] Labour MP
- Anthony Meyer (1970–1997), Conservative MP[28]
- Harold Soref (1970–1974) Conservative MP
- Christopher Tugendhat (1970–1977) Conservative MP
- Neville Sandelson (1971–1983) Labour and later Social Democratic Party MP
- Clement Freud (1973–1987)[29] Liberal MP
- Tim Sainsbury (1973–1997) Conservative MP
1974–2000
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- Leon Brittan (1974–1988),[30] Conservative MP
- Ivan Lawrence (1974–1997), Conservative MP
- Nigel Lawson (1974–1992), Conservative MP[17]
- Millie Miller (1974–1977),[31] Labour MP
- Malcolm Rifkind (1974–1997 & 2005–2015),[32] Conservative MP
- Anthony Steen (1974–2010), Conservative MP
- Alf Dubs (1979–1987),[33] Labour MP
- Sheila Faith (1979–1983), Conservative MP
- David Winnick (1979–2017), Labour MP
- Mark Wolfson (1979–1997), Conservative MP
- Martin Brandon-Bravo (1983–1992), Conservative MP [34]
- Alex Carlile (1983–1997), Liberal and later Liberal Democrat MP
- Harry Cohen (1983–2010),[35] Labour MP
- Edwina Currie (1983–1997),[36] Conservative MP
- Michael Howard (1983–2010),[37] Conservative MP and Leader of the Conservative Party
- Phillip Oppenheim (1983–1997), Conservative MP
- David Sumberg (1983–1997), Conservative MP
- Mildred Gordon (1987-1997) Labour MP
- Irvine Patnick (1987–1997), Conservative MP
- Gerry Steinberg (1987–2005), Labour MP
- Michael Fabricant (1992–2024), Conservative MP
- Peter Mandelson (1992–2004), Labour MP
- Barbara Roche (1992–2005),[38] Labour MP
- Margaret Hodge (1994–2024),[39] Labour MP
- John Bercow (1997–2019),[40] Conservative MP and Speaker of the House of Commons
- Peter Bradley (1997–2005), Labour MP
- Ivor Caplin (1997–2005), Labour MP
- Louise Ellman (1997–2019),[41] Labour and later Independent MP
- Fabian Hamilton (1997–present),[42] Labour MP
- Evan Harris (1997–2010),[43] Liberal Democrat MP
- Oona King (1997–2005),[44] Labour MP
- Oliver Letwin (1997–2019),[45] Conservative MP
- Julian Lewis (1997–present),[46] Conservative MP
- Ivan Lewis (1997–2019),[47] Labour MP and later independent MP
- Gillian Merron (1997–2010),[48] Labour MP
2000–present
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- Jonathan Djanogly (2001–2024), Conservative MP
- Paul Goodman (2001–2010) Conservative MP
- George Osborne (2001–2017), Conservative MP[49][50]
- Ed Miliband (2005–present), Labour MP and former Leader of the Labour Party
- David Miliband (2001–2013), Labour MP
- Susan Kramer (2005–2010), Liberal Democrat MP
- Lynne Featherstone (2005–2015), Liberal Democrat MP[51]
- Brooks Newmark (2005–2015), Conservative MP
- Grant Shapps (2005–2024), Conservative MP
- Lee Scott (2005–2015),[52] Conservative MP
- Ed Vaizey (2005–2019), Conservative MP
- Luciana Berger (2010–2019),[53] Labour Co-operative MP and later Liberal Democrat MP
- Michael Ellis (2010–2024), Conservative MP
- Zac Goldsmith (2010–2016 & 2017–2019), Conservative MP
- Robert Halfon (2010–2024), Conservative MP
- Richard Harrington (2010–2019), Conservative MP
- Julian Huppert (2010–2015), Liberal Democrat MP
- Andrew Percy (2010–2024), Conservative MP
- Lucy Frazer (2015–2024), Conservative MP
- Ruth Smeeth (2015–2019), Labour MP
- Tom Tugendhat (2015–present), Conservative MP
- Alex Sobel (2017–present), Labour MP [54]
- Ian Levy (2019–2024), Conservative MP
- Charlotte Nichols (2019–present), Labour MP[55]
- Damien Egan (2024-present), Labour MP[56]
- Ben Coleman (2024-present), Labour MP[57]
- David Pinto-Duschinsky (2024-present), Labour MP[58]
- Georgia Gould (2024-present), Labour MP[59]
- Matthew Patrick (2024-present), Labour MP[60]
- Peter Prinsley (2024-present), Labour MP[61]
- Sarah Sackman (2024-present), Labour MP[62]
- Josh Simons (2024-present), Labour MP[63]
Peers
There have also been many Jewish members of the House of Lords some of whom are listed below.
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- David Alliance, Baron Alliance Liberal Democrats
- Irwin Bellow, Baron Bellwin Conservative
- Jeremy Beecham, Baron Beecham Labour
- Max Beloff, Baron Beloff Conservative
- Alexander Bernstein, Baron Bernstein of Craigweil Labour
- Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein Labour
- Alma Birk, Baroness Birk,[64] Labour
- John Browne, Baron Browne of Madingley Crossbench
- Ruth Deech, Baroness Deech Crossbench
- Bernard Delfont, Baron Delfont Labour
- Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen Crossbench
- Andrew Feldman, Baron Feldman of Elstree, Conservative
- Basil Feldman, Baron Feldman Conservative,
- Lynne Featherstone, Baroness Featherstone Liberal Democrats
- Daniel Finkelstein, Baron Finkelstein Conservative
- Samuel Fisher, Baron Fisher of Camden Labour
- David Freud, Baron Freud, Conservative
- Henry Cohen, 1st Baron Cohen of Birkenhead Crossbench
- Dora Gaitskell, Baroness Gaitskell Labour
- Anna Gaitskell, Baroness Gaitskell,[64] Labour
- Robert Gavron, Baron Gavron, Labour
- Maurice Glasman, Baron Glasman Labour
- David Gold, Baron Gold Conservative
- Peter Goldsmith, Baron Goldsmith,[65][66] Labour
- Arnold Goodman, Baron Goodman,[67] Labour
- Anthony Grabiner, Baron Grabiner Labour
- Desmond Hirshfield, Baron Hirshfield Labour
- Gerald Isaacs, 2nd Marquess of Reading Conservative
- Sydney Jacobson, Baron Jacobson, Crossbench[68]
- Immanuel Jakobovits, Baron Jakobovits Crossbench
- Peter Levene, Baron Levene of Portsoken Crossbench
- Michael Levy, Baron Levy[69] Labour
- Edward Levy-Lawson, 1st Baron Burnham, Crossbench
- Richard Kahn, Baron Kahn, Crossbench
- Jonathan Kestenbaum, Baron Kestenbaum, Labour
- Stormont Mancroft, 2nd Baron Mancroft, Conservative
- Benjamin Mancroft, 3rd Baron Mancroft, Conservative
- Peter Mandelson, Baron Mandelson, Labour
- Peter Mond, 4th Baron Melchett, Labour
- Victor Mishcon, Baron Mishcon, Labour
- Roger Nathan, 2nd Baron Nathan, Crossbench
- Julia Neuberger, Baroness Neuberger, Crossbench
- David Neuberger, Baron Neuberger of Abbotsbury, Crossbench
- David Pannick, Baron Pannick Crossbench
- Maurice Peston, Baron Peston of Mile End ,[70] Labour
- Beatrice Plummer, Baroness Plummer,[64] Labour
- Stuart Polak, Baron Polak Conservative
- Gail Rebuck, Baroness Rebuck Labour
- Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild Labour
- Jonathan Sacks, Baron Sacks, Crossbench
- Alan Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury, SDP
- David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville Labour
- John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Preston Candover Conservative
- Marcus Samuel, 1st Viscount Bearsted Conservative
- Walter Samuel, 2nd Viscount Bearsted Conservative
- Beatrice Serota, Baroness Serota,[64] Labour
- Herbert Stern, 1st Baron Michelham Conservative
- Leonard Steinberg, Baron Steinberg Conservative
- Alan Sugar, Baron Sugar, Crossbench
- David Triesman, Baron Triesman Labour
- Leslie Turnberg, Baron Turnberg, Labour
- George Weidenfeld, Baron Weidenfeld SDP
- Leonard Wolfson, Baron Wolfson[17] Conservative
- Harry Woolf, Baron Woolf,[71] Crossbench
- David Young, Baron Young of Graffham, Conservative
People with careers abroad
- Julius Vogel, first Jewish Prime Minister of New Zealand.[72]
See also
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Bibliography
- JYB = Jewish Year Book (annual)
References
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- ↑ British Jews in the First World War, accessed 10/10/19
- ↑ Concise Dictionary of National Biography: "Jewish leader"
- ↑ Jewish Chronicle July 25, 1941, p.12, "Jews in the Navy"
- ↑ Concise Dictionary of National Biography: "of Jewish parentage"
- ↑ Encyclopaedia Judaica vol 14 cols 1539–1540
- ↑ The Independent (London), 06/04/04
- ↑ Concise Dictionary of National Biography: "son of Jews who had emigrated from eastern Europe"
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ http://ian-mikardo.biography.ms/ Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Guardian, Saturday October 23, 1999
- ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: "Harry, as he was always called, united both in blood as well as name the vitality, attitudes, and temperaments of two Jewish banking dynasties"
- ↑ JYB 1988 p192, 227
- ↑ Flade, Roland. The Lehmans: From Rimpar to the New World: A Family History, 2nd Enlarged Ed., 1999; reviewed by the American Jewish Historical Society. Accessed 14 Nov 2006.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ JYB 1986 p186, 269
- ↑ a b c JYB 2005 p212
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ JYB 2005 p212, 241-2.
- ↑ JYB 1986 p185, 269-70.
- ↑ American Jewish Year Book, 1989
- ↑ JYB 2005 p. 212, 282–3.
- ↑ Obituary, Jewish Chronicle, September 8, 1989, p.18.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Spectator, 2/12/1989 p5: "Sir Anthony... is a representative of the enlightened haute juiverie"
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ Jewish Chronicle, October 18, 1974, p.5: List of Jewish MPs.
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- ↑ https://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/community/Nottingham.htm
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- ↑ The Spectator, Mar 20, 1999 Template:Webarchive
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- ↑ Evening Standard (London); 11/04/05; ANDREW GILLIGAN; p. 16
- ↑ The Jewish Chronicle, 7 December 2006, p.5: "The Jewish Conservative MP for Ilford North"
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/religion-news-10-july-2024/
- ↑ a b c d Encyclopaedia Judaica, art. Politics: "Four women were among the first ten Jews to be made life peers: Dora Gaitskell, Beatrice Serota, Alma Birk and Beatrice Plummer"
- ↑ http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/Printer&cid=1100147299159&p=1006953080001 Template:Webarchive
- ↑ http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/page.cfm?objectid=11674035&method=full&siteid=50061
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: "the only son and elder child of Samuel and Anna Jacobson, a Jewish couple"
- ↑ JYB 2005 p212, 270
- ↑ http://www.thejc.com/articles/robert-peston-the-bbc-reporter-who-means-business
- ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2995692.stm
- ↑ Australian Dictionary of Biography, accessed 10/10/19; Jewish Online Museum, accessed 10/10/19
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