Chinese kinship

File:Chinese Family in Hawaii 1893.jpg

A Chinese family in Hawaii in the late 19th century.

Template:Anthropology of kinship The Chinese kinship system (Template:Lang-zh) is among the most complicated of all the world's kinship systems. It maintains a specific designation for almost every member's kin based on their generation, lineage, relative age, and gender. The traditional system was agnatic, based on patriarchal power, patrilocal residence, and descent through the male line. Although there has been much change in China over the last century, especially after 1949, there has also been substantial continuity.Template:Sfnb

In the extended family, every child, from birth, participated in an organized system of kinship relations involving elder brothers, sisters, maternal elder brothers' wives, and various aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, and in-laws. These relationships were precisely named and differentiated. The kinship system influences every aspect of Chinese custom and morality and even law - the rights and duties they entailed were even enshrined in the legal codes of the Ming and Qing dynasties, so that gross violation could invite legal sanction.

In traditional Chinese thought, these relationships carry extensive rights and duties whose fulfilment that constituted both righteousness (yi, ) and propriety (li, ). These rights and duties included love and care, certain kinds of respect on the basis of relation alone, mutual support - including financial, and mourning in the event of death. Fulfilment of these duties constituted the principal Chinese virtue - filial piety (xiao, ). Family members expect to be addressed by the correct term that indicated their relationship to the person communicating with them. Whenever wills clashed, it was expected, and even legally enforced, that the will of the superior family member would prevail over the will of a junior family member.

In the Chinese kinship system:

• Maternal and paternal lineages are distinguished. For example, a mother's brother and a father's brother have different terms.
• The relative age of a sibling is indicated by specific terms. For example, a father's younger brother has a different terminology than his older brother.
• The gender of the relative is distinguished, as in English.
• The generation from ego is indicated, like in English.

Rights and duties of kinship continue even after death - it was not considered sufficient to serve one's parents well in life, but one had to display the proper protocol even after they died. Five degrees of mourning () are observed. In all places and times, Chinese mourning behavior is calibrated according to the genealogical distance between the mourner and the deceased.

The 19th century anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan, without field-work or detailed descriptions, classified Chinese kinship as a "Sudanese" or "descriptive" system.

Kinship and Chinese societies

Literature and history

Kinship terms appeared in the earliest Chinese lexicon, Erya. Chapter Four Shiqin (/) is dedicated to an explanation of kinship and marriage. Another lexicon from the late Han dynasty, Shiming, has a detailed list of forms of address for all relatives.

With the influence of Confucianism, the concepts of kinship and consanguinity are deeply ingrained in Chinese culture. One of the Confucian teachings is filial piety, which it is extended to a series of five relationships known as the Five Cardinal Relationships (), three of which are related to the family:

• ruler and subject ( Pinyin: jūnchén)
• father and son ( fùzǐ)
• elder and younger brother ( xiōngdì)
• husband and wife ( fūfù)
• between friends ( péngyǒu)

In the Three Character Classic, the nine agnates are listed in the following stanza:

	Great-great-grandfather, great-grandfather, grandfather, father and self, self and son, son and grandson,
	from son and grandson, on to great-grandson and great-great-grandson. These are the nine agnates, constituting the kinships of man.

Culture

In Chinese culture where the extended family is still valued, kinship terms have survived well into current usage. Also, since it is taboo to refer to or address a more senior family relation by his or her given name, the kinship term is the only possible term of address. When there are many siblings as in many Post–World War II baby-boom families, the relation is distinguished and addressed according to age or rank. For example, (great/senior/elder) is used in the address for (the eldest sister of one's mother); for the second eldest sister of one's mother; for the third eldest sister of one's mother, etc. In cases where someone is older than his more senior relation, such as an uncle, it is common to address the senior relation with a diminutive suffix.

Because some of these terms have no equivalent in foreign languages, they are not easily translated and the descriptiveness is often lost in translation. However, terms such as "Second Uncle" are sometimes used. Translating kinship terms from other languages often presents the problem of ambiguity as there is no equivalent general term for when the relationship is unspecified (such as if an English speaker mentions their aunt or uncle without specifying which relationship their aunt or uncle is to their family)

Despite the complexity of the kinship address system (see terminology section below), it is common to simplify it for the sake of familiarity. Some formal kinship terms are not familiar to many people, cumbersome, or not preferred by the addressee. For example, a cousin once removed may at her discretion be referred to as simply a cousin if she is of a similar age to the speaker.

Law

The Great Qing Legal Code () was the last set of Chinese laws where the complete kinship terms were shown. The Qing code not only confirmed the importance of defining kinship relations, but also defined the legal and moral conducts between family relations. Although there was no specific statute in the Qing code to define kinship terms, it specified the mourning attire and ritual appropriate according to the relation between the mourner and the deceased. Kinship relationships also played a crucial role in the administration of justice under the Qing. Penalties were more severe for crimes committed against senior relatives within the family hierarchy. Crimes committed against those outside of the extended family were punished less harshly. Crimes committed by senior family members against their inferiors were least likely to elicit harsh sentences.

Among the 47 statutes added in 1740 under Qianlong Emperor, Statute 2 (Charts/Tables of Mourning Attire, ()) and Statute 3 (Code of Attire, ()) dealt with mourning attire completed with charts. According to Qing law, one had to observe a period of mourning when a relative died. The closer and more senior the deceased family member, the longer the period of mourning is dictated by law. The mourning period range from three months to three years. During this period, the bereaved had to stay at home, excuse himself from public service, refrain from celebrations of all sorts, and practice abstinence, among other things.

The "extermination of nine kindreds" () is considered one of the most severe punishments found in traditional Chinese law enforced until the end of Qing. The practice of exterminating the kins had been established since Qin when Emperor Qin Shi Huang (reigned 247 BC–221 BC) declared "Those who criticize the present with that of the past, Zu" (). Zu () referred to the "extermination of three kindreds" (): father, son and grandson. The extermination was to ensure the elimination of challenges to the throne and political enemies. Emperor Wen of Sui (reigned 581–604) abolished the practice but it was reintroduced by the succeeding Emperor Yang (reigned 604–617). Not only did he bring back the punishment, but he also extended it to the nine kindreds.

In the first year of the reign of the Yongle Emperor (Ming dynasty, reigned 1402–1424), the prominent historian Fāng Xìao-rú (方孝孺) committed an offense worthy of the "extermination of nine kindreds" for refusing to write the inaugural address and for insulting the Emperor. He was recorded as saying in defiance to the would-be Emperor: "" ("Never mind nine agnates, go ahead with ten!"). Thus he was granted his wish with an infamous case, perhaps the only one, of "extermination of ten kindreds" () in the history of China. In addition to the blood relations from his nine-agnates family hierarchy, his students and peers were added to be the tenth group. Altogether 873 people were said to have been executed.

To this day, a three-character term (冚家鏟) for "death to the entire family" remains a powerful profanity in the Cantonese language.

Clan

A Chinese clan is a patrilineal and patrilocal group of related Chinese people with a common surname sharing a common ancestor. In southern China, clan members could form a village known as an ancestral village. In Hong Kong, clan settlement is exemplified by walled villages. An ancestral village usually features a hall and shrine honoring ancestral clan members. A clan pedigree can be found recording male members of the clan. A married woman is considered part of her husband's clan.

Marriage and divorce

Marriage is an important rite signifying the coming together of two clans and the beginning of a new family unit. Marriage has to be permanent and issue is expected. Weddings were central occasions in a family's life. Spouses were chosen carefully by the parents. Marital agreements, especially among the well-to-do, were stipulated with contracts between both families. This practice was continued for centuries and spread throughout the world, and goes on to this day. Divorce was nearly impossible. The choices made between the families held great importance, and weddings were held on certain days to ensure good fortune. This practice gained prominence during the Han dynasty (202BCE-220CE).

Polygamy

Polygamy (specifically polygyny) had been practiced in Chinese societies for thousands of years. Since the Han dynasty, Chinese men have been able to legally have only one wife. It was common for privileged Chinese men to have a wife and various concubines, however. For those who could afford a bride price and support a family of multiple concubines and children, polygyny provided a better chance of issuing heirs. The importance of this was apparent in the imperial court, which usually housed hundreds of concubines. Aside from concubinage, having multiple wives with equal status was also accepted prior to the ban on polygamy.

In a concubinage situation, the wife, concubines and their children would live in the same household. Wives and concubines would often refer to each other as "sisters". As a concubine was not wedded in a marriage ceremony, she had fewer rights in the household. There was also no inter-clan relation between the man's clan and the concubine's own kin.

Polygamy was banned in China in 1930 when the Republic of China government promulgated Civil Code (Part IV) where Section 985 states "A person who has a spouse may not contract another marriage. A person shall not marry with two or more persons simultaneously." This is still in effect today in the territories under effective administration of the Republic of China including Taiwan and Kinmen and Matsu. However, as infringement of marriage cannot be prosecuted without a complaint by the wife, one can still unofficially practice polygamy by registering only one marriage. Such practice still happen occasionally among older and wealthy men. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China by the Chinese Communists on the mainland, this banning was reaffirmed in the passage of the Marriage Code of 1950. In Hong Kong, new polygamous marriages were no longer legally allowed after 1971 with the passage of the Marriage Reform Ordinance (Template:Cite Hong Kong ordinance). Due to this, incidents of extramarital affairs rose. Some men have even established a family with their mistresses and children kept secret from their wives. There is a phenomenon of cross-border polygyny usually involving Hong Kong men and their mistresses living in mainland China.

Demographics

With modern Chinese governments advocating smaller families through family planning campaigns and policy-making, large extended families may be a thing of the past. The People's Republic of China introduced its One-child policy in 1979, and The Family Planning Association of Hong Kong began its "Two is enough!" (!) campaign in the 1970s. Contrasted with the large extended families created during the pre-war and baby-boom years, average modern Chinese families now have many fewer children.

As of 2006, the fertility rates in Hong Kong and Macau ranked among the lowest two in the world. Hong Kong, ranked the lowest in the world, was the only territory with less than one child born per woman on the average. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked well below the world average. Similarly, the birth rates in Hong Kong and Macau ranked among the lowest three in the world. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked below the median.

A product of rising divorce rates in Chinese societies is the breakdown of the traditionally close-knit kinship relation. On the other hand, remarriage could provide more than two sets of paternal or maternal relatives.

Defining kin

Nine grades of relations

The "nine grades of relations" () is an important concept when it comes to application of laws and observing rituals. Since the Han dynasty, there have been two separate interpretations of what is defined by the nine grades. Each interpretation is based on societal and political needs as the ruler of the day see fit.

The "older" interpretation ("") defined the nine grades of relations strictly in the paternal line. That is, nine generations from great-great-grandfather down to great-great-grandchildren. This interpretation was officially recognized after Tang and Song dynasties. By Ming and Qing dynasties, laws have defined the patrilineality of the nine kindreds. This interpretation was cited in Part III Chapter 2 of Lewis Henry Morgan's 1877 book Ancient Societies.

The "contemporary" interpretation ("") defines the nine grades of relations to be four generations from the paternal line, three from the maternal line, and two from the wife's. Historically, this definition has been used during award, punishment and family annihilation.

Yet another interpretation suggests that "nine" is actually an arbitrary number as nine is considered a large number in Chinese culture. As such, it means anyone and everyone related is to be executed in the context of family annihilation.

Five degrees of mourning attire

The five degrees of mourning attire () define not only the proper attire, but also the proper mourning ritual one should observe when a relative has died. Appearing in writings as early as the Rites of Zhou, mourning rituals developed over the years. By the time of the Qing dynasty, it was set down in law that there were five degrees, or grades of mourning according to the relationship one has with the deceased. The closer a person is related to the deceased, the higher the degree of mourning that is observed. A married female belongs to her husband's clan and observes a similar but lower degree of mourning than her husband. She would observe mourning for a small portion of the members from her own clan. A married man would observe mourning for an even smaller number of relatives of his in-laws.

In a concubinage situation, a concubine was only required to mourn for her husband, his wife, his parents, and all his children including her own, whereas a wife was required to mourn for almost all of her husband's near relatives. In addition, there was no requirement to mourn the death of a concubine except by the man's children.

Since the end of feudal China, the rituals of the five degrees of mourning have largely given way to simpler and less elaborate observance.

Conventionally, clans adopted the five degrees of mourning according to unwritten definitions that determines the difference between close and distant relatives. As such, marriage between relatives that were covered within the five degrees of mourning was considered taboo and immoral. These definitions, unlike the mourning ritual, are still applicable in determining whether a marriage is acceptable, albeit fewer people are familiar with the mourning rituals themselves.

According to these definitions, many relatives considered "distant" in Western cultures are considered close in Chinese culture.

The five degrees of mourning attire in decreasing order of severity are:

• 1. - 3 years (actually 25 months)
• 2. - 3 years, 1 year, 1 year with staff of mourning, 5 months, 3 months
• 3. - 9 months, 7 months
• 4. - 5 months
• 5. - 3 months

Common extended family and terminology

This section covers members and their spouses in the immediate and extended family that is commonly found in the first nine corner cells on the table of consanguinity or cousin chart (from ego to grandparents on the rows and columns). The terms are listed in Standard Chinese, regional and dialectal usages are listed in the corresponding row. The degrees of mourning attire are included as an indication of how close the relation is to ego and what level of respect is expected. "1" being the highest; "5" being the lowest. "0" means they are not within the definition of the five degrees of mourning. Some of these are common relations and are included for completeness. The degrees of mourning indicated in the table are based on ego as an unmarried member of the family.

General prefixes

• (táng) - "inner kins": used in relation to father's clan
• (wài) / (biǎo) - "outer kins": prefix to indicate maternal lineage on some of the relations, descendants of female members of "inner kins".
• (gāo) - prefix for relations four generations removed senior of ego, i.e.: great-great-grandparents ()
• (zēng) - prefix for relations three generations removed, i.e.: great-grandparents; great-grandchildren (; )
• (zǔ) - prefix for relations two generations removed senior of ego, i.e.: grandparents (), also a general prefix for relations two or more generations senior of ego.
• (SC: ) (sūn) - prefix for relations two generations removed junior of ego, i.e.: grandchildren (), also a general prefix for relations two or more generations junior of ego.
• / (xuán/yuán) - prefix for relations four generations removed junior of ego, i.e.: great-great-grandchildren (/)

Where they differ, the Simplified Chinese character is presented first, followed by the Traditional Chinese character in parentheses.

Members of the nuclear family

As with all languages, there exist a high degree of regional variation in kinship terminology. Different Chinese languages, dialects, and even families can have distinct words and pronunciations for the same person. In the tables below, the "other variants" presented happens to be mostly from Cantonese, and should not be interpreted as being comprehensive. Also, a person may use terminology from a region but pronounce the term with the regional pronunciation, a different regional pronunciation, or in Putonghua, which may be the case when a person has family members from different parts of China.

Primary members
Relation	Formal term	Vocative or Address		English equivalent	Degree of mourning duration
		Standard Mandarin	Other variants
father	, () fù, fùqīn	bàba	lou5 dau6 aa3 baa4	father	1 (3 years)
mother	, () mǔ, mǔqīn	() māma	aa3 maa1 maa1 mi4 lou5 mou2	mother	1 (3 years)
elder brother	兄 xiōng	哥哥 gēge	大佬 daai6 lou2 阿兄	brother	2 (1 year)
younger brother	弟 dì	弟弟 dìdi	細佬 sai3 lou2	brother	2 (1 year)
elder sister	姊 zǐ	姊姊 zǐzi 姐姐 jiějie	家姐 gaa1 ze1	sister	4 5 if married
younger sister	妹 mèi	妹妹 mèimei	阿妹 aa3 mui1	sister	4 5 if married
wife	妻子 qīzi	老婆 lǎopó 太太 tàitai	牽手khan tshiú 娘子	wife	2* (1 year) 2 (1 year) if in-law parents are not deceased
husband	丈夫, 先生 zhàngfu, xiānsheng	老公 lǎogōng	老公 lou5 gung1 翁 頭家 thâu ge	husband	1 (3 years)
son	儿子 (兒子) érzi	儿子 (兒子) érzi	仔 zai2	son	2 (1 year)
daughter	女儿 (女兒) nǚ'ér	女儿 (女兒) nǚ'ér 闺女 (閨女) guī nǚ	女女 neoi4 neoi2	daughter	2 (1 year)

Members of the extended family

Paternal lineage
Relation	Formal term	Vocative or Address		English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
		Standard Mandarin	Other variants
father's father	zǔfù	() yéye	agong	(paternal) grandfather	2
father's mother	zǔmǔ	nǎinai	amā mama	(paternal) grandmother	2
father's older brother	bófù	bóbo		uncle	2 (1 year)
father's older brother's wife	bómǔ	bómǔ	bóniáng	aunt	2 (1 year)
father's younger brother	shūfù	shūshu		uncle	2 (1 year)
father's younger brother's wife	() shěnmǔ	() shěnshen		aunt	2 (1 year)
father's older sister	gūmǔ	() gūmā gūgu	āgū	aunt	2 (1 year) 3 -if married
father's older sister's husband	gūfu	gūfu	gūzhàng	uncle	0
father's younger sister	gūjiě	gūgu	āgū gūjiě	aunt	2 (1 year) 3 -if married
father's younger sister's husband	gūfu	gūfu	gūzhàng	uncle	0
father's brother's son, older than ego	tángxiōng tánggē			first cousin	3
father's brother's son, younger than ego	tángdì			first cousin	3
father's brother's son's wife	tángsǎo			first cousin-in-law	5
father's brother's daughter, older than ego	tángzǐ	tángzǐ tángjiě		first cousin	3 4 -if married
father's brother's daughter, younger than ego	tángmèi			first cousin	3 4 -if married
father's sister's son, older than ego	biǎoxiōng	gūbiǎoxiōng biǎogē		first cousin	5
father's sister's son, younger than ego	biǎodì	gūbiǎodì		first cousin	5
father's sister's son's wife	biǎosǎo	gūbiǎosǎo		first cousin-in-law	5
father's sister's daughter, older than ego	biǎozǐ	gūbiǎozǐ biǎojiě		first cousin	0
father's sister daughter, younger than ego	biǎomèi	gūbiǎomèi		first cousin	0

Maternal lineage
Relation	Formal Term	Vocative or Address		English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
		Standard Mandarin	Other variants
mother's father	wàizǔfù	wàigōng	gōnggong āgōng	(maternal) grandfather	4
mother's mother	wàizǔmǔ	wàipó	pópó āmā	(maternal) grandmother	4
mother's brother	jiùfù	jiùjiu		uncle	4
mother's brother's wife	jiùmǔ	() jiùmā	jìnmǔ	aunt	0
mother's sister	yímǔ	() yímā (older than ego's mother); āyí (younger than ego's mother)		aunt	4
mother's sister's husband	yífù	yífu	yízhàng	uncle	0
mother's sibling's son, older than ego	biǎoxiōng	biǎogē		first cousin	5
mother's sibling's son, younger than ego	biǎodì	biǎodì		first cousin	5
mother's sibling's daughter, older than ego	biǎozǐ	biǎojiě		first cousin	0
mother's sibling's daughter, younger than ego	biǎomèi	biǎomèi		first cousin	0

Nephews and nieces
Relation	Formal Term	Vocative or Address	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
brother's son	() zhíér	zhízí	nephew	2 (1 year)
brother's son's wife	() zhíxífù		niece-in-law	3
brother's daughter	zhínǚ		niece	2 (1 year) 3 -if married
brother's daughter's husband	zhínǚxù		nephew-in-law	0
sister's son	wàishēng	(if ego is female) yíshēng	nephew	0
sister's daughter	wàishēngnǚ	(if ego is female) yíshēngnǚ	niece	0

Grandchildren
Relation	Term	Vocative or Address	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
son's son	() sūnér	() sūnzí	grandson	2 (1 year) -heir-apparent 3 -all others
son's daughter	() sūnnǚ		granddaughter	2 (1 year)
daughter's son	() wàisūnér	() wàisūnzí	grandson	5
daughter's daughter	() wàisūnnǚ		granddaughter	0

In-laws
Relation	Term	Vocative or Address	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
older brother's wife	sǎo	sǎozi	sister-in-law	4
younger brother's wife	() dìfù		sister-in-law	4
older sister's husband	zǐfū	jiěfū	brother-in-law	0
younger sister's husband	mèifū		brother-in-law	0
son's wife	() érxí	() xífù	daughter-in-law	2 (1 year) -wife of heir-apparent 3 -all others)
daughter's husband	nǚxù		son-in-law	0
son's son's wife	() sūnxífù		granddaughter-in-law	2 (1 year) -wife of heir-apparent 5 -all others
son's daughter's husband	() sūnnǚxù		grandson-in-law	0
daughter's son's wife	() wàisūnxífù		granddaughter-in-law	0
daughter's daughter's husband	() wàisūnnǚxù		grandson-in-law	0
wife's father	yuèfù	yuèzhàng; wàifù	father-in-law	5
wife's mother	yuèmǔ	zhàngmǔ; wàimǔ	mother-in-law	5
husband's father	gōnggōng	jiāgōng; () lǎoyé	father-in-law	1 (3 years)
husband's mother	pópó	jiāgū; jiāpó; nǎinǎi	mother-in-law	1 (3 years)
wife's older brother	() nèixiōng	dàjiù	brother-in-law	0
wife's younger brother	() nèidì	xiǎojiù	brother-in-law	0
wife's older sister	yíjiě	dàyí	sister-in-law	0
wife's younger sister	yímèi	xiǎoyí	sister-in-law	0
husband's older brother	dàbó		brother-in-law	3
husband's older brother's wife	dàsǎo		sister-in-law	4
husband's younger brother	xiǎoshū		brother-in-law	4
husband's younger brother's wife	() xiǎoshěn		sister-in-law	4
husband's older sister	dàgū		sister-in-law	4
husband's younger sister	xiǎogū		sister-in-law	4
wife's sister's husband, older than ego	jīnxiōng		(elder) (co-)brother-in-law	0
wife's sister's husband, younger than ego	jīndì		(younger) (co-)brother-in-law	0
husband's brother's wife	zhóulǐ		(co-)sister-in-law
son's or daughter's father-in-law	() qìngjiāgōng	() qìngjiāwēng	co-father-in-law (rare)
son's or daughter's mother-in-law	() qìngjiāmǔ	() qìngjiāpó	co-mother-in-law (rare)
husband's wife, senior to ego	?		co-wife
husband's wife, junior to ego	?		co-wife
husband's wife, younger sister to ego	dìyìng		sister-wife
concubine	qiè		concubine

Larger extended family and terminology

This section covers members and their spouses found beyond the first nine corner cells on the table of consanguinity or cousin chart. Although some of the relations seem distant, they are considered close relatives and it is common for Chinese families to have regular contact with these members.

Extended family
Relation	Term	Vocative or Address	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
paternal (maternal) grandfather's older (younger) brother	()() (wài) bó (shū) zǔfù	()() (wài) bó (shū) gōng	granduncle	paternal: 4 maternal: 0
- wife	()() (()()) (wài) bó (shěn) zǔmǔ	() (()()) (wài) bó (shěn) pó	grandaunt	paternal: 4 maternal: 0
paternal (maternal) grandfather's sister	() (wài) gūzǔmǔ	() (wài) gūpó; () (()) (wài) cóngzǔgū	grandaunt	paternal: 4; 5 if married maternal: 0
- husband	() (wài) gūzǔfù	() (wài) gūgōng; () (wài) zhànggōng	granduncle	0
paternal (maternal) grandmother's brother	() (wài) jiùzǔfù	() (wài) jiùgōng	granduncle	0
- wife	() (wài) jiùzǔmǔ	() (wài) jiùpó	grandaunt	0
paternal (maternal) grandmother's sister	() (wài) yízǔmǔ	() (wài) yípó	grandaunt	0
- husband	() (wài) yízǔfù	() (wài) yígōng	granduncle	0
paternal (maternal) great-grandparent	() (wài) zēngzǔfùmǔ	()/ (wài) tàigōng/pó	great-grandparent	paternal: 2 (5 months) maternal: 0
paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's older (younger) brother	() (wài) zúzēngzǔfù	()() (wài) zēngbó (shū) zǔfù; ()() (wài) tàibó (shū) gōng	great-granduncle	paternal: 5 maternal: 0
- wife	() (wài) zúzēngzǔmǔ	()() (()()) (wài) tàibó (shěn) pó; ()() (()()) (wài) tàibó (shěn) pó	great-grandaunt	paternal: 5 maternal: 0
paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's sister	() (wài) zúzēngzǔgū	() (wài) zēngzǔgū	great-grandaunt	paternal: 5; 0 if married maternal: 0
paternal (maternal) great-great-grandparent	() (wài) gāozǔfùmǔ		great-great-grandparent	paternal: 2 (3 months) maternal: 0
paternal (maternal) great-great- great-grandparent	() (wài) tiānzǔfùmǔ		great-great- great-grandparent	paternal: 2 (3 months) maternal: 0
paternal (maternal) great-great-great- great-grandparent	() (wài) lièzǔfùmǔ		great-great-great- great-grandparent	?
paternal (maternal) great-great-great- great-great-grandparent	() (wài) tàizǔfùmǔ		great-great-great- great-great-grandparent	?
paternal (maternal) great-great-great-great- great-great-grandparent	() (wài) yuǎnzǔfùmǔ		great-great-great-great- great-great-grandparent	?
paternal (maternal) great-great-great-great- great-great-great-grandparent	() (wài) bízǔfùmǔ		great-great-great-great- great-great-great-grandparent	?
son of brother's son (daughter)	() (()) (wài) zhísūnér		grandnephew	2 (1 year) maternal: 0
- wife	() (()) (wài) zhísūnxí		grandniece in-law	5 maternal:0
daughter of brother's son (daughter)	() (()) (wài) zhísūnnǚ		grandniece	2 (1 year); 3 if married maternal: 0
sister's grandchildren	() wàishēngsūnérnǚ		grandnephew; grandniece	0
children of son's son	() zēngsūnérnǚ		great-grandchildren	male: 5; female:0
children of son's daughter	() zēngwàisūnérnǚ		great-grandchildren	0
children of daughter's son	() wàizēngsūnérnǚ		great-grandchildren	0
children of daughter's daughter	() chóngwàisūnérnǚ		great-grandchildren	0
children of son's son's son	() xuánsūnérnǚ	() yuánsūnérnǚ	great-great-grandchildren	male: 5; female:0
all other grandchildren	() wàixuánsūnérnǚ	() wàiyuánsūnérnǚ	great-great-grandchildren
grandson of brother's son (daughter)	() (()) (wài) zhízēngsūnér		great-grandnephew	5; maternal: 0
granddaughter of brother's son (daughter)	() (()) (wài) zhízēngsūnnǚ		great-grandniece	5; maternal: 0
sister's great-grandchildren	() wàishēngzēngsūnérnǚ		great-grandnephew; great-grandniece	0

First cousins
Relation	Term	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
children of father's brother's son	() tángzhíérnǚ	first cousin once removed
all other grandchildren of father's sibling	() biǎozhíérnǚ	"
grandchildren of mother's sibling	() biǎoshēngérnǚ	"
son of paternal grandfather's brother who is older than ego's father	tángbó	"
son of paternal grandfather's brother who is younger than ego's father	tángshū	"
daughter of paternal grandfather's brother	tánggū	"
son of maternal grandfather's brother	tángjiù	"
daughter of maternal grandfather's brother	tángyí	"
son of paternal grandfather's sister who is older than ego's father	biǎobó	"
son of paternal grandmother's sibling who is older than ego's father	biǎobó	"
son of paternal grandfather's sister who is younger than ego's father	biǎoshū	"
son of paternal grandmother's sibling who is younger than ego's father	biǎoshū	"
daughter of paternal grandfather's sister	biǎogū	"
daughter of paternal grandmother's sibling	biǎogū	"
son of maternal grandfather's sister	biǎojiù	"
son of maternal grandmother's sibling	biǎojiù	"
daughter of maternal grandfather's sister	biǎoyí	"
daughter of maternal grandmother's sibling	biǎoyí	"
son of paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's brother who is older than ego's grandfather	() (wài) zúbózǔfù	first cousin twice removed
son of paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's brother who is younger than ego's grandfather	() (wài) zúshūzǔfù	"
daughter of paternal great-grandfather's brother	() (wài) zúzǔgū	"
children of father's brother's son's son	() tángzhísūnérnǚ
all other great-grandchildren of parent's sibling	() biǎozhísūnérnǚ	"

Second cousins
Relation	Term	Vocative or Address	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
paternal grandson of paternal grandfather's brother older than ego	() zàicóngxiōng		second cousin	4
paternal grandson of paternal grandfather's brother younger than ego	() zàicóngdì		"	4
paternal granddaughter of paternal grandfather's brother older than ego	() zàicóngjiě		"	4; 5 if married
paternal granddaughter of paternal grandfather's brother younger than ego	() zàicóngmèi		"	4; 5 if married
maternal grandson of paternal grandfather's brother older than ego	gédàibiǎoxiōng		"
maternal grandson of paternal grandfather's brother younger than ego	gédàibiǎodì		"
maternal granddaughter of paternal grandfather's brother older than ego	gédàibiǎojiě		"
maternal granddaughter of paternal grandfather's sister older than ego	gédàibiǎomèi		"
paternal great-grandson of paternal grandfather's brother	tángzhí		second cousin once removed
paternal great-granddaughter of paternal grandfather's brother	tángzhínǚ		"

Third cousins
Relation	Term	Vocative or Address	English equivalent	Degree of mourning (duration)
great-grandson of paternal great-grandfather's brother older than ego	zúxiōng	() sāncóngxiōng	third cousin	5
great-grandson of paternal great-grandfather's brother younger than ego	zúdì	() sāncóngdì	"	5
great-granddaughter of paternal great-grandfather's brother older than ego	zújiě	() sāncóngjiě	"	5; 0 if married
great-granddaughter of paternal great-grandfather's brother younger than ego	zúmèi	() sāncóngmèi	"	5; 0 if married

Distant relations

Other than some of the relations mentioned in the previous sections that are not covered under the five degrees of mourning attire, the following are kin that are also considered distant.

• () - great-great-great-grandchildren
• () - great-great-great-great-grandchildren
• () - great-great-great-great-great-grandchildren
• () - great-great-great-great-great-great-grandchildren
• () - great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandchildren

- prefix for maternal line relations; essentially anyone not sharing the same surname as ego

Partial or no consanguinity

The following familial relationship suggests partial or no consanguinity. Most of them are not a modern phenomenon, however. In fact, polygamy (specifically polygyny) was widely accepted in pre-republican China.

The saying of "three fathers and eight mothers" () refers to:

• Cohabiting stepfather ()
• Non-cohabiting stepfather ()
• Stepfather from remarriage of father and mother ()
• - father's official wife (when birth mother of ego is a concubine)
• - stepmother
• - adopted mother
• - concubine replacing ego's birth mother who died
• - widowed birth mother who has remarried
• - birth mother who has been divorced
• - father's concubine who is also a mother (when birth mother of ego is the official wife)
• - wet nurse

Another saying of "five fathers and ten mothers" () refers to

• - birth father
• - adopted father
• - stepfather
• - godfather
• - (male) teacher/coach/master

and two mothers added to the eight mentioned above:

• - birth mother
• - father's concubine

As a result of polygamy there would be half-siblings:

• - siblings sharing the same father
• - siblings sharing the same mother

See also

• Chinese marriage
• Chinese surname
• Chinese compound surname
• Chinese given name
• Little Emperor Syndrome

General:

• Family
• Consanguinity
• Patrilineality

References and further reading

• Morgan, Lewis Henry. 1877. Ancient Society. MacMillan & Company, London (complete text online)
• Wolf, Arthur P. and Chieh-shan Huang. 1985. Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945. Stanford University Press.
• Template:In lang Code of (Mourning) Attire tables
• http://extremeorient.revues.org/234 The Father-Son Relationship in Early Medieval China