Eridu

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Template:Short description Script error: No such module "For". Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox ancient site Eridu (Template:Langx; Sumerian: eridugki; Akkadian: irîtu) was a Sumerian city located at Tell Abu Shahrain (Template:Langx), also Abu Shahrein or Tell Abu Shahrayn, an archaeological site in Lower Mesopotamia. It is located in Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, near the modern city of Basra. Eridu is traditionally considered the earliest city in southern Mesopotamia based on the Sumerian King List. Located Template:Cvt south-southwest of the ancient site of Ur, Eridu was the southernmost of a conglomeration of Sumerian cities that grew around temples, almost in sight of one another. The city gods of Eridu were Enki and his consort Damkina. Enki, later known as Ea, was considered to have founded the city. His temple was called E-Abzu, as Enki was believed to live in Abzu, an aquifer from which all life was thought to stem. According to Sumerian temple hymns, another name for the temple of Ea/Enki was called Esira (Esirra).

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"... The temple is constructed with gold and lapis lazuli, Its foundation on the nether-sea (apsu) is filled in. By the river of Sippar (Euphrates) it stands. O Apsu pure place of propriety, Esira, may thy king stand within thee. ..."[1][2]

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At nearby Ur there was a temple of Ishtar of Eridu (built by Lagash's ruler Ur-Baba) and a sanctuary of Inanna of Eridu (built by Ur III ruler Ur-Nammu). Ur-Nammu also recorded building a temple of Ishtar of Eridu at Ur which is assumed to have been a rebuild.[3][4]

One of the religious quarters of Babylon, containing the temple called the Esagila as well as the temple of Annunitum, among others, was also named Eridu.[5]

Archaeology

File:Eridu Context Map.jpg
Eridu context c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Eridu is located on a natural hill in a basin approximately Script error: No such module "convert". long and Script error: No such module "convert". deep, which is separated from the Euphrates River by a sandstone ridge called the Hazem.[6] This basin, the As Sulaybiyat Depression (formerly: Khor en-Nejeif), becomes a seasonal lake (Arabic: Sebkha) during the rainy season from November to April.[7] During this period, it is filled by the discharge of the Wadi Khanega. Adjacent to eastern edge of the seasonal lake are the Hammar Marshes.

In the 3rd Millennium BC a canal, Id-edin-Eriduga (NUN)ki "the canal of the Eridug plain", connected Eridu to the Euphrates River, which later shifted its course. The path of the canal is marked by several low tells with 2nd Millennium BC surface pottery and later burials.[8] The site contains 8 mounds:[9]

  • Mound 1 – Abū Šahrain, Script error: No such module "convert". in area NW to WE, Script error: No such module "convert". in height, Enki Temple, Ur III Ziggurat (É-u₆-nirTemplate:Which lang) Sacred Area, Early Dynastic plano-convex bricks found, Ubaid Period cemetery
  • Mound 2 – Script error: No such module "convert". in area, Script error: No such module "convert". in height, Template:Cvt N of Abū Šahrain, Early Dynastic Palace, remnants of city wall built with plano-convex bricks
  • Mound 3 – Script error: No such module "convert". in area, Template:Cvt high, Template:Cvt SSW of Abū Šahrain, Isin-Larsa pottery found
  • Mound 4 – Script error: No such module "convert". in area, Template:Cvt SW of Abū Šahrain, Kassite pottery found
  • Mound 5 – Script error: No such module "convert". in area, Template:Cvt high, Template:Cvt SE of Abū Šahrain, Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid periods
  • Mound 6 – Script error: No such module "convert". in area, Template:Cvt high, Template:Cvt SW of Abū Šahrain
  • Mound 7 – Script error: No such module "convert". in area, Template:Cvt high, Template:Cvt E of Abū Šahrai
  • Mound 8 – Usalla, flat area, Template:Cvt NW of Abū Šahrain, Hajj Mohammed and later Ubaid

The site was initially excavated by John George Taylor, the British Vice-counsel at Basra, in 1855.[6] Among the finds were inscribed bricks enabling the identification of the site as Eridu.[10] Excavation on the main tell next occurred by R. Campbell Thompson from April 10 until May 8, 1918, and H. R. Hall from April 21 until May 8, 1919, who also conducted a survey in the area around the tell.[11][12][13][14][15][16] An interesting find by Hall was a piece of manufactured blue glass which he dated to c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".. The blue color was achieved with cobalt, long before this technique emerged in Egypt.[17]

This lump of glass is currently dated to the 21st century BC or even earlier, and is considered as perhaps the earliest such glass object in the world in the History of glass. It was produced during the Akkadian Empire or the early Ur III period.[18]

File:Eridu mound4c.8.png
E-abzu temple of Eridu

Excavation there resumed from 1946 to 1949 under Fuad Safar and Seton Lloyd of the Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities and Heritage. Among the finds were a Ubaid period terracotta boat model, complete with a socket amidship for a mast and hole for stays and rudder, bevel-rimmed bowls, and a "lizard type" figurine like those found in a sounding under the Royal Cemetery of Ur. Soundings in the cemetery showed it to have about 1000 graves, all from the end of the Ubaid period (Temple levels VI and VII).[19][20][21][22][23] They found a sequence of 17 Ubaid Period superseding temples and an Ubaid Period graveyard with 1000 graves of mud-brick boxes oriented to the southeast. The temple began as a Template:Cvt mud brick square with a niche. At Level XI it was rebuilt and eventually reached its final tripartite form in Level VI. In Ur III times a 300 square meter platform was constructed as a base for a ziggurat.[24] These archaeological investigations showed that, according to A. Leo Oppenheim, "eventually the entire south lapsed into stagnation, abandoning the political initiative to the rulers of the northern cities", probably as a result of increasing salinity produced by continuous irrigation, and the city was abandoned in 600 BC.[25] In 1990 the site was visited by A. M. T. Moore who found two areas of surface pottery kilns not noted by the earlier excavators.[26]

In October 2014, Franco D’Agostino visited the site in preparation for the coming resumption of excavation, noting a number of inscribed Amar-Sin brick fragments on the surface.[27] In 2019, excavations at Eridu were resumed by a joint Italian, French, and Iraqi effort which included the University of Rome La Sapienza and the University of Strasbourg.[28][29][30] Work has included producing new detail topographic and photogrammetric maps and is mainly focused on the Ubaid period cemetery and its associated Ubaid residential area.[31]

Artifacts

File:Eridu temple 7.png
Large buildings, implying centralized government, started to be made. Eridu Temple, final Ubaid period

In March 2006, Giovanni Pettinato and S. Chiod from Rome's La Sapienza University claimed to have discovered 500 Early Dynastic historical and literary cuneiform tablets on the surface at Eridu "disturbed by an explosion". The tablets were said to be from 2600 to 2100 BC (rulers Eannatum to Amar-Sin) and be part of a library. A team was sent to the site by Iraq's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage which found no tablets, only stamped bricks from Eridu and surrounding sites such as Ur. Nor was there a permit to excavate at the site issued to anyone.[32][33] At this point Pettinato stated that they had actually found 70 inscribed bricks. This turned out to be stamped bricks used to build the modern Eridu dig-house. The dig-house had been built using bricks from the demolished Leonard Woolley's expedition house at Ur (clearly spelled out in the 1981 Iraqi excavation report to avoid confusion to future archaeologists).[34] Most of the bricks in question were returned to Ur in 1962 for use in restoration efforts.[9]

Architecture

Temple and ziggurat

The urban nucleus of Eridu was Enki's temple, called House of the Aquifer (Cuneiform: Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "lang".; Sumerian: Script error: No such module "lang".; Akkadian: Script error: No such module "lang".), which in later history was called House of the Waters (Cuneiform: Script error: No such module "Lang"., Script error: No such module "lang".; Sumerian: e₂-engur; Akkadian: bītu engurru). The name refers to Enki's realm.[35] His consort Ninhursag had a nearby temple at Ubaid.[36]

During the Ur III period, Ur-Nammu had a ziggurat built over the remains of previous temples. Aside from Enmerkar of Uruk (as mentioned in the Aratta epics), several later historical Sumerian kings are said in inscriptions found here to have worked on or renewed the e-abzu temple, including Elili of Ur; Ur-Nammu, Shulgi and Amar-Sin of Ur-III, and Nur-Adad of Larsa.[37][38]

Level Date (BC) Period Size (m) Note
XVIII 5300 – 3×0.3 Sleeper walls
XVII 5300–5000 – 2.8×2.8 First cella
XVI 5300–4500 Early Ubaid 3.5×3.5
XV 5000–4500 Early Ubaid 7.3×8.4
XIV 5000–4500 Early Ubaid – No structure found
XIII 5000–4500 Early Ubaid – No structure found
XII 5000–4500 Early Ubaid – No structure found
XI 4500–4000 Ubaid 4.5×12.6 First platform
X 4500–4000 Ubaid 5×13
IX 4500–4000 Ubaid 4×10
VIII 4500–4000 Ubaid 18×11
VII 4000–3800 Ubaid 17×12
VI 4000–3800 Ubaid 22×9
V 3800–3500 Early Uruk – Only platform remains
IV 3800–3500 Early Uruk – Only platform remains
III 3800–3500 Early Uruk – Only platform remains
II 3500–3200 Early Uruk – Only platform remains
I 3200 Early Uruk – Only platform remains

Lament for Eridu

The fall of early Mesopotamia cities and empires was typically believed to be the result of falling out of favor with the gods. A genre called City Laments developed during the Isin-Larsa period, of which the Lament for Ur is the most famous. These laments had a number of sections (kirugu) of which only fragments have been recovered. The Lament for Eridu describes the fall of that city.[39][40]

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Its king stayed outside his city as if it were an alien city. He wept bitter tears. Father Enki stayed outside his city as if it were an alien city. He wept bitter tears. For the sake of his harmed city, he wept bitter tears. Its lady, like a flying bird, left her city. The mother of E-maḫ, holy Damgalnuna, left her city. The divine powers of the city of holiest divine powers were overturned. The divine powers of the rites of the greatest divine powers were altered. In Eridug everything was reduced to ruin, was wrought with confusion.[41]

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History

File:Painted pottery vessel (jug or ewer). From Eridu (Tell Abu Shahrain), Iraq. 3500-2800 BCE. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.jpg
Painted pottery vessel from Eridu (Tell Abu Shahrain), Iraq. 3500–2800 BCE. Iraq Museum, Baghdad

Eridu is one of the earliest settlements in the region, founded [[6th millennium BC|c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".]] during the early Ubaid period, at that time close to the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Euphrates, although in modern times it is about 90 miles inland. Excavation has shown that the city was founded on a virgin sand dune site with no previous habitation. According to the excavators, construction of the Ur III ziggurat and associated buildings was preceded by the destruction of preceding construction and its use as leveling fill so no remains from that time were found. At a small mound 1 kilometer north of Eridu two Early Dynastic III palaces were found, with an enclosure wall. The palaces measured 45 meters by 65 meters with 2.6 meter wide walls and were constructed in the standard Early Dynastic period method of plano-convex bricks laid in a herringbone fashion.[19]

File:Bowl MET DP104228 (cropped).jpg
Bowl excavated in the Ubaid Cemetery at Eridu (Grave 134)

With possible breaks in occupation in the Early Dynastic III and Akkadian Empire periods, the city was inhabited until the Neo-Babylonian Empire, though in later times it was primarily a cultic site.

File:Bowl MET DP104229.jpg
Bowl; mid 6th–5th millennium BC; ceramic; 6.99 cm; Tell Abu Shahrain; Metropolitan Museum of Art

During the Ubaid period the site extended out to an area of about 12 hectares (about 30 acres). Twelve neolithic clay tokens, the precursor to Proto-cuneiform, were found in the Ubaid levels of the site.[42][43][44] Eighteen superimposed mudbrick temples at the site underlie the unfinished ziggurat of Amar-Sin (c. 2047–2039 BC). Levels XIX to VI were from the Ubaid period and Levels V to I were dated to the Uruk period.[45] Significant habitation was found from the Uruk period with "non-secular" buildings being found in soundings. Uruk finds included decorative terracotta cones topped with copper, copper nails topped with gold, a pair of basalt stone lion statues, columns several meters in diameter coated with cones and gypsum, and extensive Uruk period pottery.[46][47][48][49] Occupation increased in the Early Dynastic period with a monumental Template:Cvt palace being constructed.[50] An inscription of Elulu, a ruler of the First Dynasty of Ur (c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".), was found at Eridu.[51] On a statue of the Early Dynastic ruler of Lagash named Entemena (c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".), it reads, "he built Ab-zupasira for Enki, king of Eridu ...",[52]

File:Fired clay brick stamped with the name of Amar-Sin, Ur III, from Eridu, currently housed in the British Museum.jpg
Fired clay brick stamped with the name of Amar-Sin, Ur III, from Eridu, currently housed in the British Museum

Eridu was active during the Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd to 21st century BC) and royal building activity is known from inscribed bricks notably those of Ur-Nammu from his ziggurat marked "Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, the one who built the temple of the god Enki in Eridu."[53] Three Third Dynasty rulers designated Year Names based on the appointment of an en(tu)-priestess (high priestess) of the temple of Enki in Eridu, the highest religious office in the land at that time. In each the first two cases it was also used as the succeeding Year Name.

  • Sulgi Year 28 – "Year the szita-priest-who-intercedes-for-Szulgi, the son of Szulgi, the strong man, the king of Ur, the king of the four corners of the universe, was installed as en-priest of Enki in Eridu"
  • Amar-Sin Year 8 – "Year (Ennune-kiag-Amar-Sin) Ennune-the beloved (of Amar-Sin, was installed as en-priestess of Enki in Eridu)"
  • Ibbi-Sin Year 11 – "Year the szita-priest who prays piously for Ibbi-Sin was chosen by means of the omens as en-priest of Enki in Eridu"
File:Bowl MET DP104227.jpg
Bowl; mid 6th–5th millennium BC; ceramic; Tell Abu Shahrain; Metropolitan Museum of Art

After the fall of Ur III the site was occupied and active during the Isin-Larsa period (early 2nd Millennium BC) as evidenced by a Year Name of Nur-Adad, ruler of Larsa "Year the temple of Enki in Eridu was built" and prior texts of Isin rulers Ishbi-Erra and Ishme-Dagan showing control over Eridu.[54] Inscribed construction bricks of Nur-Adad have also been found at Eridu.[55] This continued in the Old Babylonian period with Hammurabi stating in his 33rd Year Name "Year Hammu-rabi the king dug the canal (called) 'Hammu-rabi is abundance to the people', the beloved of An and Enlil, established the everlasting waters of plentifulness for Nippur, Eridu, Ur, Larsa, Uruk and Isin, restored Sumer and Akkad which had been scattered, overthrew in battle the army of Mari and Malgium and caused Mari and its territory and the various cities of Subartu to dwell under his authority in friendship"

File:Cup MET ME49 133 5.jpg
Cup; mid 6th–5th millennium BC; ceramic; 8.56 cm; Tell Abu Shahrain; Metropolitan Museum of Art

In an inscription of Kurigalzu I (c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".), a ruler of the Kassite dynasty one of his epitaphs is "[he one who ke]eps the sanctuary in Eridu in order".[56]

An inscription of the Second Sealand Dynastic ruler Simbar-shipak (c. 1021–1004 BCE) mentions a priest of Eridu.[57]

The Neo-Assyrian emperor Sargon II (722–705 BCE) awarded andurāru-status (described as "a periodic reinstatement of goods and persons, alienated because of want, to their original status") to Eridu.[58]

The Neo-Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) built at Eridu as evidenced by inscribed bricks found there.[59]

Mythology

In some, but not all, versions of the Sumerian King List, Eridu is the first of five cities where kingship was received before a flood came over the land. The list mentions two rulers of Eridu from the Early Dynastic period, Alulim and Alalngar.[60][61] Template:Verse translation

File:Jar MET ME49 133 13.jpg
Jar; mid 6th–5th millennium BC; ceramic; 15.24 cm; Tell Abu Shahrain; Metropolitan Museum of Art

In Sumerian mythology, Eridu was the home of the Abzu temple of the god Enki, the Sumerian counterpart of the Akkadian god Ea, god of deep waters, wisdom and magic. Like all the Sumerian and Babylonian gods, Enki/Ea began as a local god who, according to the later cosmology, came to share the rule of the cosmos with Anu and Enlil. His kingdom was the sweet waters that lay below earth (Sumerian ab=water; zu=far).[62] The bright star Canopus was known to the ancient Mesopotamians and represented the city of Eridu in the Three Stars Each Babylonian star catalogues and later around 1100 BC on the MUL.APIN tablets.[63] Canopus was called MUL.NUNKI by the Babylonians, which translates as "star of the city of Eridu". From most southern city of Mesopotamia, Eridu, there is a good view to the south, so that about 6000 years ago due to the precession of the Earth's axis the first rising of the star Canopus in Mesopotamia could be observed only from there at the southern meridian at midnight. In the city of Ur this was the case only 60 years later.[64]

In the flood myth tablet[65] found in Ur, how Eridu and Alulim were chosen by gods as first city and first priest-king is described in more detail.[66] The following is the English translation of the tablet:[67] Template:Verse translation

File:Cup MET ME49 133 6.jpg
Cup; mid 6th–5th millennium BC; ceramic; 9.53 cm; Tell Abu Shahrain; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Adapa, a man of Eridu, is depicted as an early culture hero. Although earlier tradition, Me-Turan/Tell-Haddad tablet, describes Adapa as postdiluvian ruler of Eridu,[68] in late tradition, Adapa came to be viewed as Alulim's vizier,Template:Sfn and he was considered to have brought civilization to the city as the sage of King Alulim.[69][70]

File:Statue of a standing lion from Eridu, Iraq, c. mid-3rd millennium BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg
Statue of a standing lion from Eridu, Iraq, c. mid-3rd millennium BC

The stories of Inanna, goddess of Uruk, describe how she had to go to Eridu in order to receive the gifts of civilization. At first Enki, the god of Eridu, attempted to retrieve these sources of his power but later willingly accepted that Uruk now was the centre of the land.[71][72]

List of rulers

The following list should not be considered complete:

# Depiction Ruler Succession Title Approx. dates Notes
Early Dynastic I period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2700 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
Predynastic Sumer (c. Template:Trim – c. 2700 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
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"After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridu."

— Template:Comma separated entries

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1 File:Lista Reale Sumerica.jpg Alulim
𒀉𒇻𒅆 		King of Sumer
King of Eridu 		Template:Fl.
(28800–67200 years)
  • Is mentioned in the Weld-Blundell Prism (W-B 44) version of the SKL (this version of the SKL was most likely written temp. of Suen-magir c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
  • Said on the SKL to have held the title of, "King" of not just Eridu; but, to have held the "Kingship" over all of Sumer
  • The Uruk List of Kings and Sages (ULKS) version of the SKL pairs him up with an apkallu (an apkallu was a sage in Sumerian literature and religion—the first apkallu was named Adapa and he was paired up with Alulim; additionally, Adapa has been compared with the Biblical figure Adam)
2 File:Initial paragraph about rule of Alulim in Eridu for 28800 years (photograph, transcription and translation).jpg Alalngar
𒀉𒋭𒃻 		Brother of Alulim (?) King of Sumer
King of Eridu 		Template:Reign
(36000 years)
  • Historicity uncertain
  • Is mentioned in the Dynastic Chronicle version of the SKL (this version of the SKL was most likely written temp. of Nabonassar c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
  • The ULKS (written c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".) pairs him up with an apkallu (Uanduga)
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"2 kings; they ruled for 64800 years. Then Eridu fell and the kingship was taken to Bad-tibira."

— Template:Comma separated entries

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3 Amelon
𒁹𒄠𒈨𒇻𒀭𒈾 		King of Sumer
King of Eridu 		Template:Reign
(46800 years)
  • Historicity uncertain
  • Is mentioned in Berossus’ version of the SKL (the Babyloniaca was written c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
  • The ULKS pairs him up with an apkallu (Enmeduga)

See also

References

Citations

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  3. ↑ Clayden, Tim, "Kassite housing at Ur: the dates of the EM, YC, XNCF, AH and KPS houses", Iraq, vol. 76, pp. 19–64, 2014
  4. ↑ Radau, Hugo, "Letters to Cassite Kings from the Temple Archives of Nippur", Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1908
  5. ↑ Gurney, O. R., "The Fifth Tablet of ‘The Topography of Babylon’", Iraq, vol. 36, no. 1/2, pp. 39–52, 1974
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  33. ↑ Curtis, John et al., "An Assessment of Archaeological Sites in June 2008: An Iraqi-British Project", Iraq, vol. 70, pp. 215–237, 2008
  34. ↑ Pettinato, Giovanni, "Eridu Texts", Time and History in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 56th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Barcelona, July 26th–30th, 2010, edited by Lluis Feliu, J. Llop, A. Millet Albà and Joaquin Sanmartín, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 799–802, 2013
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  42. ↑ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. Before writing: From counting to cuneiform, Vol. II, University of Texas Press, 1992
  43. ↑ Overmann, Karenleigh A., The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, Table 9.2, pp. 169–170, 2019
  44. ↑ [1] Wright, H. T., "Appendix: The Southern Margins of Sumer. Archaeological Survey of the Area of Eridu and Ur", In: R. M. Adams (ed.), The Heartland of Cities: Survey of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Flood Plain of the Euphrates (Chicago-London), pp. 295–345, 1981
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  53. ↑ Frayne, Douglas, "Ur-Nammu E3/2.1.1", Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 5–90, 1997
  54. ↑ De Graef, Katrien. "Bad Moon Rising: The Changing Fortunes of Early Second-Millennium BCE Ur", Ur in the Twenty-First Century CE: Proceedings of the 62nd Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Philadelåpåphia, July 11–15, 2016, edited by Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 49–88, 2021
  55. ↑ “RIME 4.02.08.05, Ex. 01 Artifact Entry.” (2006) 2023. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI). June 15, 2023. https://cdli.ucla.edu/P345487.
  56. ↑ Oshima, Takayoshi, "Another Attempt at Two Kassite Royal Inscriptions: The Agum-Kakrime Inscription and the Inscription of Kurigalzu the Son of Kadashmanharbe", Babel und Bibel 6, edited by Leonid E. Kogan, N. Koslova, S. Loesov and S. Tishchenko, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 225–268, 2012
  57. ↑ [2] L.W. King, "Babylonian Boundary Stones and Memorial Tablets in the British Museum (BBSt)", London: Trustees of the British Museum, 1912
  58. ↑ Frazer, Mary and Adalı, Selim Ferruh, "“The just judgements that Ḫammu-rāpi, a former king, rendered”: A New Royal Inscription in the Istanbul Archaeological Museums", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 231–262, 2021
  59. ↑ BMHBA 94, 17 05 artifact entry (No. P283716). (2005, November 15). Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI). https://cdli.ucla.edu/P283716
  60. ↑ G. Marchesi, "The Sumerian King List and the Early History of Mesopotamia", in:ana turri gimilli, studi dedicati alPadre Werner R. Mayer, S.J. da amici e allievi, Vicino Oriente Quader-no5, Rome: Università di Roma, pp. 231–248, 2010
  61. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  62. ↑ Jacobsen, Thorkild, "The Eridu Genesis", Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 100, no. 4, pp. 513–29, 1981
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  64. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  65. ↑ UET 6, 61 + UET 6, 503 + UET 6, 691 (+) UET 6, 701 or CDLI Literary 000357, ex. 003 (P346146)
  66. ↑ Ansky, S., "The Eridu Genesis", The Harps that Once..., edited by David G. Roskies, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 145–150, 1992
  67. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ Cavigneaux, Antoine. “Une version Sumérienne de la légende d’Adapa (Textes de Tell Haddad X) : Zeitschrift Für Assyriologie104 (2014): 1–41.
  69. ↑ Brandon, S. G. F., "The Origin of Death in Some Ancient Near Eastern Religions", Religious Studies, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 217–28, 1966
  70. ↑ Milstein, Sara J., "The “Magic” of Adapa", Texts and Contexts: The Circulation and Transmission of Cuneiform Texts in Social Space, edited by Paul Delnero and Jacob Lauinger, Berlin, München, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 191–213, 2015
  71. ↑ Gertrud Farber-Fliigge, "Der Mythos 'Inanna und Enki' unter besonderer Berücksichti-gung der Liste der me", Rome, St Pohl 10, 1973
  72. ↑ Alster, Bendt, "On the Interpretation of the Sumerian Myth 'Inanna and Enki'", vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 20–34, 1974

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Further reading

  • Espak, Peeter, "Was Eridu The First City in Sumerian Mythology", Studia in Honorem Tarmo Kulmar. When Gods Spoke: Researches and Reflections on Religious Artefacts, pp. 53–70, 2015
  • Seton Lloyd, "Ur-al 'Ubaid, 'Uqair and Eridu. An Interpretation of Some Evidence from the Flood-Pit", Iraq, British Institute for the Study of Iraq, vol. 22, Ur in Retrospect. In Memory of Sir C. Leonard Woolley, pp. 23–31, (Spring – Autumn, 1960)
  • Lloyd, S., "The Oldest City of Sumeria: Establishing the origins of Eridu.", Illustrated London News Sept 11, pp. 303–5, 1948.
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  • Mahan, Muhammed Seiab. "Topography of Eridu and its defensive fortifications", ISIN Journal 3, pp. 75–94, 2022
  • Margueron, Jean, "Notes d’archéologie et d’architecture Orientales: 3: Du Nouveau Concernant Le Palais d’Eridu?", Syria, vol. 60, no. 3/4, pp. 225–31, 1983
  • Quenet, Philippe, and Anne-Caroline Rendu Loisel, "La campagne du printemps 2022 à Eridu, Irak du Sud", Les Chroniques d'ARCHIMEDE 3, pp. 5–8, 2022
  • Reisman, Daniel, "Ninurta’s Journey to Eridu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 24, no. 1/2, pp. 3–10, 1971
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