Amis language

Amis ( or ) is a Formosan language of the Amis (or Ami), an indigenous people living along the east coast of Taiwan. Currently, the largest of the Formosan languages, it is spoken from Hualien in the north to Taitung in the south, with another population in the Hengchun Peninsula near the southern end of the island, though the northern varieties are considered to be separate languages.

Government services in counties where many Amis people live in Taiwan, such as the Hualien and Taitung railway stations, broadcast in Amis alongside Mandarin. However, few Amis under the age of 20 in 1995 spoke the language. It is not known how many of the 200,000 ethnic Amis speak the language, but overall a third of the aboriginal Taiwanese population does.

Dialects

Amis is a dialect cluster. There are five dialects: Southern Amis, Tavalong-Vataan, Central Amis, Chengkung-Kwangshan, and Northern Amis (Nanshi Amis, which includes Nataoran).

Sakizaya is a moribund language spoken among the northernmost ethnic Amis but is mutually unintelligible with the Northern Amis dialect.

Phonology

The following discussion covers the central dialect of Amis.

Consonants

Amis consonants

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Epiglottal	Glottal
Nasals	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ⟨n⟩			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Plosives and affricate	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ⟨t⟩	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Fricatives	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link ~ Template:IPA link Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr		(Template:IPA link) Template:Angbr	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Trill			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Lateral flap			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr
Approximants	Template:IPA link Template:Angbr			Template:IPA link Template:Angbr

The voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ is in parentheses because it only occurs in some loanwords, such as 'ridge between sections of a rice field'.

The epiglottal consonants have proven difficult to describe, with some sources describing them as pharyngeal or even uvular as opposed to epiglottal. It's unclear if is a separate phoneme from or if it's just an allophone of it. The voiceless pharyngeal fricative is a word-final allophone of .

The voiceless plosives and the affricate are released in clusters, so that cecay "one" is pronounced ; as is : sepat "four" is . The glottal stop is an exception, frequently having no audible release in final position. The voiced fricatives, (the latter found only in loanwords) are devoiced to in utterance-final and sometimes initial position. may be interdental or post-dental. The sibilants, , are optionally palatalized () before . does not occur in word-initial position. is often post-alveolar, and in final position it is released: "fog".

shows dramatic dialectal variation. In Fengbin, a town in the center of Amis territory, it is pronounced as a central dental fricative, , whereas in the town of Kangko, only away, it is a lateral . In Northern Amis, it is a plosive , which may be laxed to intervocalically. The epiglottals are also reported to have different pronunciations in the north, but the descriptions are contradictory. In Central Amis, is always voiceless and is often accompanied by vibrations that suggest it involves an epiglottal trill Template:IPAblink. Edmondson and Elsing report that these are true epiglottals initially and medially, but in utterance-final position they are epiglotto–pharyngeal.

Sakizaya, considered to be a separate language, contrasts a voiced with voiceless .

In the practical orthography, is written Template:Angle bracket, Template:Angle bracket, Template:Angle bracket, Template:Angle bracket, Template:Angle bracket, Template:Angle bracket, and Template:Angle bracket.

Vowels

Amis vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link
Mid		(Template:IPA link)
Open		Template:IPA link

Amis has three common vowels, . Despite the fact that a great deal of latitude is afforded by only needing to distinguish three vowels, Amis vowels stay close to their cardinal values, though there is more movement of and toward each other (tending to the range) than there is in front-vowel space (in the range).

A voiceless epenthetic schwa optionally breaks up consonant clusters, as noted above. However, there are a small number of words where a short schwa (written e) may be phonemic. However, no contrast involving the schwa is known, and if it is also epenthetic, then Amis has words with no phonemic vowels at all. Examples of this e are malmes "sad", pronounced , and ’nem "six", pronounced or .

Stress

Stress regularly falls on the final syllable.

Examples of words

lotong: monkey/ape fafoy: pig wacu: dog

cecay: one tosa: two tolo: three sepat: four lima: five

'enem: six pito: seven falo: eight siwa: nine polo': ten

Comparisons of Amis with English and other Austronesian languages

Amis	English	Tagalog	Pangasinan	Kapampangan	Ilocano	Javanese	Sundanese	Malay
cecay	one	isa	sakey	isa	maysa	siji	hiji	satu
tosa	two	dalawa	dua	adwa	dua	loro	dua	dua
tolo	three	tatlo	talo	atlo	tallo	telu	tilu	tiga
sepat	four	apat	apat	apat	uppat	papat	opat	empat
lima	five	lima	lima	lima	lima	lima	lima	lima
'enem	six	anim	anem	anam	inem	enem	genep	enam
pito	seven	pito	pito	pitu/pito	pito	pitu	tujuh	tujuh
falo	eight	walo	walo	walu/walo	walo	wolu	dalapan	delapan
siwa	nine	siyam	siyam	siam	siam	sanga	salapan	sembilan
polo'	ten	sampu	samplo	apulu/apulo	sangapulo	sepuluh	sapuluh	sepuluh

• Compare with Tagalog baboy (pig), aso (dog), tatlo (3), apat (4), lima (5), anim (6), pito (7), walo (8)
• Compare with Kapampangan babi (pig), asu (dog), atlo (3), apat (4), lima (5), anam (6), pitu/pito (7), walu/walo (8), siyam (9), apulu/apulo (10) and ama (father) and ima (mother)
• Compare with Ilokano baboy(pig), aso (dog), maysa (1), dua (2), tallo (3), uppat (4), lima (5), inem (6), pito (7), walo (8), siam (9), sangapulo (10)
• Compare with Javanese lutung (monkey), babi (pig), asu (dog), siji (1), loro (2), telu (3), papat (4), lima (5), enem (6), pitu (7), wolu (8), sanga (9), sepuluh (10)
• Compare with Sundanese lutung (monkey), babi (pig), hiji (1), dua (2), tilu (3), opat (4), lima (5), genep (6), tujuh (7), dalapan (8), salapan (9), sapuluh (10)
• Compare with Malay lotong/lutung (monkey), babi (pig), satu (1), dua (2), tiga (3), empat (4), lima (5), enam (6), sembilan (9), sepuluh (10)
• Maolah kako a mimali = I like to play sports.
• Takaraw ko pita’kod = I jump very high.
• Kalamkam ko kacomikay = I run very fast.
• Ira ko tata’angay a mata ako = I have big eyes
• mamangay a ngoyos = A small mouth
• takaya’ay a fokes = long hair
• Sowal san ko kahacecay to makapahay a tamdaw kako = Everyone tells me that I am beautiful.
• Mafana’ay a miasik, misawsaw to kaysing, milidong to fodoy = I can sweep the floor, wash dishes and clothing.
• Maolah a midemak kako to tayal no loma’ = I love to do household chores.
• nawhani maolah kako to loma’ no mako = Because I love my home.

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights translated into Pangcah:

• Chiyu mahufuchay tu tamlaw, maemin pingdeng ichunyan a kngli. Iraay chaira lishing a naay a naay a harateng, pimaulahsha u harateng nu kaka shafa.
• English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Grammar

Verbs in the Amis language have some inflections including existential clause, active voice, passive voice, disposal sentence, imperative mood, optative mood, and prohibitive mood.

Case markers

Cases are marked by case particles.

	Neutral	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive
Common	o/u	ko	to	no
Personal (singular)	ci	ci	ci ... an	ni
Personal (plural)	ca	ca	ca ... an	na

Syntax

There are two word orders in Amis called "General" Word Order and "Special" Word Order.

Below are some examples of Amis sentence:

"General" Word Order Sentence I : Verb–subject

Verb	Subject
Verb, Adjective, etc.	Preposition for Subjects + Nouns

Example

• Maomahay ci wama. (The father is working in the field.)
  • mimaomahay: working (in the field)
  • ci: subject preposition for personal proper noun
  • wama: father
• Misaholoay ci wina. (The mother is cooking rice.)
  • misaholoay: cooking (rice)
  • ina/wina: mother

"General" Word Order Sentence II : Verb–subject–object

Verb	Subject	Object
Verb, Adjective, etc.	Preposition for Subjects + Nouns	Preposition for Objects + Nouns

Example

• Mifaca' ko kaying to riko'. (The young woman is washing clothes.)
• Mifaca' koya kaying to riko'. (That young woman is washing clothes.)
  • mifaca': wash (clothes)
  • ko: subject preposition for common nouns
  • kaying: young woman
  • to: object preposition for common nouns
  • riko'/fudoy: clothes

Toponyms

Sing ’Olam (2011:300–301) lists the following Amis names for villages and towns in Hualien County and Taitung County of eastern Taiwan.

External links

• Central Amis Wordlist at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
• Kaipuleohone's Robert Blust's collection includes materials on Central Amis.
• Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典 Template:In lang – Amis search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
• Amis teaching and learning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples Template:In lang
• Amis translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people – published on the website of the presidential office