Mahmud II: Difference between revisions

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| succession  = [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] ([[Padishah]])
| succession  = [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] ([[Padishah]])
| predecessor  = [[Mustafa IV]]
| predecessor  = [[Mustafa IV]]
| successor    = [[Abdulmejid I]]
| successor    = [[Abdülmecid I]]
| succession2  = [[Ottoman Caliph]] (''[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]'')
| succession2  = [[Ottoman Caliph]] (''[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]'')
| predecessor2 = Mustafa IV
| predecessor2 = Mustafa IV
| successor2  = Abdulmejid I
| successor2  = Abdülmecid I
| reign        = 28 July 1808 – 1 July 1839
| reign        = 28 July 1808 – 1 July 1839
| coronation  =  
| coronation  =  
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*[[Saliha Sultan (daughter of Mahmud II)|Saliha Sultan]]
*[[Saliha Sultan (daughter of Mahmud II)|Saliha Sultan]]
*[[Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Mahmud II)|Mihrimah Sultan]]
*[[Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Mahmud II)|Mihrimah Sultan]]
*[[Abdulmejid I]]
*[[Abdülmecid I]]
*[[Atiye Sultan]]
*[[Atiye Sultan]]
*[[Adile Sultan]]
*[[Adile Sultan (daughter of Mahmud II)|Adile Sultan]]
*[[Abdulaziz]]}}
*[[Abdulaziz]]}}
| issue-link  = #Family
| issue-link  = #Family
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| death_place  = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| death_place  = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
| burial_date  =  
| burial_date  =  
| burial_place = Tomb of Sultan Mahmud II, [[Fatih, Istanbul]], Turkey
| burial_place = Tomb of Sultan Mahmud II, [[Fatih]], Istanbul, Turkey
| signature_type = [[Tughra]]
| signature_type = [[Tughra]]
| religion    = [[Sunni Islam]]
| religion    = [[Sunni Islam]]
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[[File:MahmutII.jpg|alt=Sultan|thumb|''Sultan Mahmud II'']]
[[File:MahmutII.jpg|alt=Sultan|thumb|''Sultan Mahmud II'']]


'''Mahmud II''' ({{langx|ota|محمود ثانى|Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî}}, {{langx|tr|II. Mahmud}}; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the [[sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "[[Peter the Great]] of Turkey",<ref name="Rogan2002">{{cite book|author=Eugene Rogan|title=Outside In: Marginality in the Modern Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-mX31dOIs8C&pg=PA7|date=4 October 2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-698-0|page=15}}</ref> Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms. His [[Auspicious Incident|disbandment]] of the conservative [[Janissaries|Janissary corps]] removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire, creating the foundations of the subsequent [[Tanzimat|Tanzimat era]]. Mahmud's reign was also marked by further Ottoman military defeat and loss of territory as a result of nationalist uprisings and European intervention.
'''Mahmud II''' ({{langx|ota|محمود ثانى|Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî}}, {{langx|tr|II. Mahmud}}; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the [[sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "[[Peter the Great]] of Turkey",<ref name="Rogan2002">{{cite book|author=Eugene Rogan|title=Outside In: Marginality in the Modern Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-mX31dOIs8C&pg=PA7|date=4 October 2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-698-0|page=15}}</ref> Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms. His disbandment of the conservative [[Janissary|Janissary Corps]] removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire, creating the foundations of the subsequent [[Tanzimat]] era. Mahmud's reign was also marked by further Ottoman military defeats and loss of territory as a result of nationalist uprisings and European intervention.


Mahmud ascended the throne following an [[Ottoman coups of 1807–1808|1808 coup]] which deposed his half-brother [[Mustafa IV]]. Early in his reign, the Ottoman Empire ceded [[Bessarabia]] to Russia at the end of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|1806–1812 Russo-Turkish War]]. Greece waged a [[Greek War of Independence|successful war of independence]] that started in 1821 with British, French and Russian support, and Mahmud was forced to recognize the independent Greek state in 1832. The Ottomans lost more territory to Russia after the [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829]], and [[Regency of Algiers|Ottoman Algeria]] was [[French conquest of Algeria|conquered by France]] beginning in 1830.
Mahmud ascended the throne following an [[Ottoman coups of 1807–1808|1808 coup]] that deposed his half-brother [[Mustafa IV]]. Early in his reign, the Ottoman Empire ceded [[Bessarabia]] to Russia at the end of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|1806–1812 Russo-Turkish War]]. Greece waged a [[Greek War of Independence|successful war of independence]] that started in 1821 with British, French and Russian support, and Mahmud was forced to recognize the independent Greek state in 1832. The Ottomans lost more territory to Russia after the [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829]], and [[Regency of Algiers|Ottoman Algeria]] was [[French conquest of Algeria|conquered by France]] beginning in 1830.


The Empire's continued decline convinced Mahmud to resume the reforms that were halted before he came to power. In 1826, he orchestrated the [[Auspicious Incident]], in which the [[Kapıkulu]] were forcibly abolished and many of its members executed, paving the way for the establishment of a [[Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye|modern Ottoman army]] and further military reforms. With this modern army, Sultan Mahmud initiated a campaign of recentralization in the empire which saw the submission of [[derebey]]s and [[Ayan (class)|ayans]] to central authority. He also made sweeping changes to the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency, and oversaw a reorganisation of the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman foreign office]]. In 1838, Mahmud established the [[Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances]], and the next year, he introduced a [[Council of Ministers (Ottoman Empire)|Council of Ministers]]. He died of [[tuberculosis]] later that year and was succeeded by his son [[Abdulmejid I]], who would continue to implement his modernization efforts.
The Empire's continued decline convinced Mahmud to resume the reforms that were halted before he came to power. In 1826, he orchestrated the [[Auspicious Incident]], in which the [[Kapıkulu]] were forcibly abolished and many of its members executed, paving the way for the establishment of a [[Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye|modern Ottoman army]] and further military reforms. With this modern army, Sultan Mahmud initiated a campaign of recentralization in the empire that saw the submission of [[derebey]]s and [[Ayan (class)|ayans]] to central authority. He also made sweeping changes to the bureaucracy to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency. He oversaw a reorganisation of the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman foreign office]]. In 1838, Mahmud established the [[Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances]], and the following year, he introduced a [[Council of Ministers (Ottoman Empire)|Council of Ministers]]. He died of [[tuberculosis]] later that year and was succeeded by his son [[Abdülmecid I]], who would continue to implement his modernization efforts.


==Early life==
==Early life==
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==Accession==
==Accession==
In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother, [[Mustafa IV]] ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan [[Selim III]], in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, [[Mustafa Bayrakdar|Alemdar Mustafa Pasha]], later became Mahmud II's [[vizier]].
In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor and half-brother, [[Mustafa IV]], ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan [[Selim III]], to defuse any rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, [[Alemdar Mustafa Pasha]], later became Mahmud II's [[vizier]].


There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian [[Ahmed Cevdet Pasha]] gives the following account: one of his slaves, a [[Georgians|Georgian]] girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, [[Alemdar Mustafa Pasha]] arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as ''[[padishah]]''. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed ''haznedar usta'', the chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the ''Altınyol'' (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Palace of Topkapi in Istanbul| url=https://archive.org/details/palaceoftopkapii00davi| url-access=registration| last=Davis| first=Claire| year=1970| pages=[https://archive.org/details/palaceoftopkapii00davi/page/214 214–217]| publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons| location=New York| asin =B000NP64Z2}}</ref>
There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian [[Ahmed Cevdet Pasha]] gives the following account: one of his slaves, a [[Georgians|Georgian girl]] named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the chambers of the Kafes where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He ran to the roof of the Third Court, where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time, one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III, proclaimed Mahmud the [[padishah]]. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed as ''haznedar usta'', chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the ''Altınyol'' or "Golden Way" of the [[Ottoman Imperial Harem]] is called the Staircase of Cevri Kalfa, since the events happened around there and are associated with her.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Palace of Topkapi in Istanbul| url=https://archive.org/details/palaceoftopkapii00davi| url-access=registration| last=Davis| first=Claire| year=1970| pages=[https://archive.org/details/palaceoftopkapii00davi/page/214 214–217]| publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons| location=New York| asin =B000NP64Z2}}</ref>


Some of the Janissaries which brought Mahmud to power considered other candidates to put to the throne. Other candidates included  [[Esma Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid I)|Esma Sultan]], the head of the [[Mevlevi Order|Mevlevi order]] in [[Konya]], or a prince from the [[Giray dynasty]] of the former [[Crimean Khanate]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yıldız |first=Gültekin |date=2019 |title=THE LAST CENTURY OF OTTOMAN ISTANBUL |url=https://istanbultarihi.ist/415-the-last-century-of-ottoman-istanbul |website=History of Istanbul}}</ref>
Some of the Janissaries who brought Mahmud to power considered other candidates to put on the throne. Other candidates included  [[Esma Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid I)|Esma Sultan]], the head of the [[Mevlevi Order]] in [[Konya]], or a prince from the [[Giray dynasty]] of the former [[Crimean Khanate]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yıldız |first=Gültekin |date=2019 |title=THE LAST CENTURY OF OTTOMAN ISTANBUL |url=https://istanbultarihi.ist/415-the-last-century-of-ottoman-istanbul |website=History of Istanbul}}</ref>


==Reign overview==
==Reign overview==
The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative [[coup d'état|coup]] of 1807 that had [[Ottoman coups of 1807–08|brought Mustafa IV to power]]. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.
{{main|Ottoman coups of 1807–1808}}
The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative [[coup d'état]] of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808, and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.


===Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12===
===Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12===
{{Main|Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)}}
{{Main|Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)}}
After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] declared war on [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in 1811, Russian pressure on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his [[French invasion of Russia|invasion of Russia]]. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)]], the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of [[Moldavia]] to Russia (which renamed the territory as [[Bessarabia]]), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In [[Transcaucasia]], the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: [[Poti]], [[Anapa]] and [[Akhalkalaki]]. Russia retained [[Sukhumi|Sukhum-Kale]] on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the [[Kingdom of Imereti]], in 1810.{{sfnp|Allen|2010|p=19}}{{sfnp|Coene|2010|p=125}} The treaty was approved by Emperor [[Alexander I of Russia]] on 11 June, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon.
After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] declared war on [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in 1811, Russian pressure on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his [[French invasion of Russia|invasion of Russia]]. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)]], the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of [[Moldavia]] to Russia (which renamed the territory as [[Bessarabia]]). However, it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower [[Danube]], and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In [[Transcaucasia]], the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: [[Poti]], [[Anapa]] and [[Akhalkalaki]]. Russia retained [[Sukhumi|Sukhum-Kale]] on the [[Abkhazia]]n coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the [[Kingdom of Imereti]] in 1810.{{sfnp|Allen|2010|p=19}}{{sfnp|Coene|2010|p=125}} The treaty was approved by Emperor [[Alexander I of Russia]] on 11 June, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to retrieve many of their soldiers from the Balkans and return them to the western areas of the empire before Napoleon's expected attack.


===War against the Saudi state===
===War against the Saudi state===
{{main|Emirate of Diriyah}}
{{main|First Saudi state}}


[[File:Image-Abdullah bin Saud FSS2.JPG|left|thumb|100px|[[Abdullah bin Saud]].]]
[[File:Image-Abdullah bin Saud FSS2.JPG|left|thumb|100px|[[Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud]].]]


During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] successfully waged the [[Ottoman-Saudi War]] and reconquered the holy cities of [[Medina]] (1812) and [[Mecca]] (1813) from the [[First Saudi State]].
During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]], successfully waged the [[Wahhabi war]]. He reconquered the holy cities of [[Medina]] (1812) and [[Mecca]] (1813) from the [[First Saudi state]], the Emirate of Diriyah.


[[Abdullah bin Saud]] and the [[First Saudi State]] had barred Muslims from the [[Ottoman Empire]] from entering the holy shrines of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]; his followers also desecrated the tombs of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], [[Hassan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]]. Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly [[Decapitation|beheaded]] for their crimes against holy cities and mosques.<ref name=ssh>{{cite web|title=The Direct Instruments of Western Control over the Arabs: The Shining Example of the House of Saud|url=http://www.social-sciences-and-humanities.com/PDF/house_of_saud.pdf|publisher=Social sciences and humanities|access-date=4 June 2012|author=Dr. Abdullah Mohammad Sindi}}</ref>
Emir [[Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud]] had barred [[Muslims]] from the Ottoman Empire from entering the holy shrines of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]; his followers also desecrated the tombs of [[Ali]], [[Hassan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]]. Emire Abdullah and his two followers were publicly [[decapitation|beheaded]] for their crimes against holy cities and mosques in 1819.<ref name=ssh>{{cite web|title=The Direct Instruments of Western Control over the Arabs: The Shining Example of the House of Saud|url=http://www.social-sciences-and-humanities.com/PDF/house_of_saud.pdf|publisher=Social sciences and humanities|access-date=4 June 2012|author=Dr. Abdullah Mohammad Sindi}}</ref>


===Greek War of Independence===
===Greek War of Independence===
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[[File:Giuseppe Mazzola - The Attack of Ibrahim Pasha against Messolonghi.jpg|thumb|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] attacks Missolonghi]]
[[File:Giuseppe Mazzola - The Attack of Ibrahim Pasha against Messolonghi.jpg|thumb|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] attacks Missolonghi]]


His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece [[First Hellenic Republic|declaring independence]] following a [[Greek War of Independence|rebellion]] that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch [[Gregory V of Constantinople|Gregory V]] executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising.<ref>Roel Meijer et al., ''Routledge Handbook of Citizenship in the Middle East and North Africa''</ref> During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the [[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)]], Mahmud II's superior force was routed by [[Abbas Mirza]], resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the [[Treaties of Erzurum]].<ref>{{cite book |author=George Childs Kohn |title=Dictionary of Wars |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1135954949 |url={{Google books|qTDfAQAAQBAJ|page=506|plainurl=y}} |pages=506 ff}}</ref> Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the [[Battle of Navarino]]; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1832)|Treaty of Constantinople]] in July 1832. This event, together with the [[French conquest of Algeria]], an Ottoman province (see [[Ottoman Algeria]]) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.
His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece [[First Hellenic Republic|declaring independence]] following a [[Greek War of Independence|rebellion]] that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest, he had ecumenical patriarch [[Gregory V of Constantinople|Gregory V]] executed on [[Easter]] 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising.<ref>Roel Meijer et al., ''Routledge Handbook of Citizenship in the Middle East and North Africa''</ref> During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the [[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)]], Mahmud II's superior force was routed by [[Abbas Mirza]], resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the [[Treaties of Erzurum]].<ref>{{cite book |author=George Childs Kohn |title=Dictionary of Wars |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1135954949 |url={{Google books|qTDfAQAAQBAJ|page=506|plainurl=y}} |pages=506 ff}}</ref> Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the [[Battle of Navarino]]; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1832)|Treaty of Constantinople]] in July 1832. This event, together with the [[French conquest of Algeria]], an Ottoman province (see [[Ottoman Algeria]]) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups residing in the empire's territories, particularly in Europe, initiated their own independence movements.


===The Auspicious Incident===
===The Auspicious Incident===
{{main|Auspicious Incident}}
{{main|Auspicious Incident}}
One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the [[Janissary]] corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants.<ref>{{Cite book|title=La Turquie et le Tanzimat|last=Engelhardt|first=Ed.|year=1882|location=Paris|page=11|publisher=A. Cotillon}}</ref><ref>A history of the Modern Middle East, Cleveland and Bunton p. 79</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2017}} This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of [[Rumelia]] and [[Asia Minor]]. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the [[Mamluk dynasty of Iraq|Iraqi Mamluks]] by [[Ali Ridha Pasha]] in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned [[Ali Pasha of Tepelena]]. Following the suppression of the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian uprising]], he sent his [[Grand Vizier]] to execute the [[Bosniak]] military commander [[Husein Gradaščević]] and dissolve the [[Bosnia Eyalet]].
One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the [[Janissary]] corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon, effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops. He burned [[Belgrad Forest]] outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants.<ref>{{Cite book|title=La Turquie et le Tanzimat|last=Engelhardt|first=Ed.|year=1882|location=Paris|page=11|publisher=A. Cotillon}}</ref><ref>A history of the Modern Middle East, Cleveland and Bunton p. 79</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2017}} This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers from both [[Rumelia]] and [[Anatolia]]. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the [[Mamluk dynasty of Iraq|Iraqi Mamluks]] by [[Ali Ridha Pasha]] in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Albanian [[Ali Pasha of Yanina]]. Following the suppression of the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian uprising]], he sent his [[Grand Vizier]] to execute the [[Bosniak]] military commander [[Husein Gradaščević]] and dissolve the [[Bosnia Eyalet]].


===Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29===
===Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29===
Another [[Russo-Turkish War (1828-29)]] broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal [[Hans Karl von Diebitsch|von Diebitsch]] was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before [[Edirne|Adrianople]]. Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. In the [[Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)|Divan]], British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace.
Another [[Russo-Turkish War (1828-29)]] broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal [[Hans Karl von Diebitsch|von Diebitsch]] was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before [[Edirne|Adrianople]]. Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the [[Black Standard]] of [[Muhammad]], and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. In the [[Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)|Divan]], British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace.
<gallery>
<gallery>
File:January Suchodolski - Akhaltsikhe siege.jpg|[[Battle of Akhalzic]] (1828), by [[January Suchodolski]]. Oil on canvas, 1839.
File:January Suchodolski - Akhaltsikhe siege.jpg|[[Battle of Akhaltsikhe]] (1828), by [[January Suchodolski]]. Oil on canvas, 1839.
File:Kars 1828.jpg|Russian forces reach and cause the Siege of [[Kars]] (1828), by January Suchodolski.
File:Kars 1828.jpg|Russian forces reach and cause the Siege of [[Kars]] (1828), by January Suchodolski.
</gallery>
</gallery>
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[[File:II. Mahmud Türbesi 1860-1890 yılları.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud II during the period of 1860–1890.]]
[[File:II. Mahmud Türbesi 1860-1890 yılları.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud II during the period of 1860–1890.]]


In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for the [[Tanzimat]] reform era which included introducing a [[Council of Ministers (Ottoman Empire)|Council of Ministers]] [''Meclis-i Vükela''], and the [[Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances]] [''Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye''].<ref name="Shaw">{{Cite book |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey Shaw |first1=Stanford J. |last1=Shaw |first2=Ezel Kural |last2=Shaw |year=1977 |volume=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521291668 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan }}</ref>{{rp|49}} The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.
In 1839, just before his death, he began preparations for reform, which included introducing a [[Council of Ministers (Ottoman Empire)|Council of Ministers]] [''Meclis-i Vükela''], and the [[Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances]] [''Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye''].<ref name="Shaw">{{Cite book |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey Shaw |first1=Stanford J. |last1=Shaw |first2=Ezel Kural |last2=Shaw |year=1977 |volume=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521291668 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan }}</ref>{{rp|49}} The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.


He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of [[Turkish bow]]s, from which comes most of what is now known as [[Turkish archery]].<ref>Paul E Klopsteg. ''Turkish Archery and the Composite Bow''. Chapter I, "Background of Turkish Archery". 2nd ed., rev., 1947, published by the author, Evanston, IL</ref>
He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of [[Turkish bow]]s, from which comes most of what is now known as [[Turkish archery]].<ref>Paul E Klopsteg. ''Turkish Archery and the Composite Bow''. Chapter I, "Background of Turkish Archery". 2nd ed., rev., 1947, published by the author, Evanston, IL</ref>


Mahmud II died of [[tuberculosis]], in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son [[Abdülmecid I]] succeeded him and announce an intention of general reorganization (Tanzimat) with the [[Edict of Gülhane]].
Mahmud II died of [[tuberculosis]] in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son [[Abdülmecid I]] succeeded him and announced an intention of general reorganization or Tanzimat with the [[Edict of Gülhane]].


==Reforms==
==Reforms==
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===Legal reforms===
===Legal reforms===
Among his reforms are the edicts (or [[firman (decree)|firman]]s), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the [[Pasha]]s.
Among his reforms are the [[firman]]s (edicts) by which he closed the Court of Confiscations and took away much of the power of the [[Pasha]]s.
[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art CAL-0334.jpg|thumb|right|Poem in praise of the prophet [[Muhammad]], calligraphed and signed by Mahmud II<ref>{{Cite web|title=Calligraphic Panel|url=https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-calligraphic-panel-cal334/|access-date=12 April 2021|website=Khalili Collections|language=en-US}}</ref>]]
[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art CAL-0334.jpg|thumb|right|Poem in praise of the prophet [[Muhammad]], calligraphed and signed by Mahmud II<ref>{{Cite web|title=Calligraphic Panel|url=https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-calligraphic-panel-cal334/|access-date=12 April 2021|website=Khalili Collections|language=en-US}}</ref>]]
Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile [[delator]]s.
Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile [[delator]]s.


The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the ''Paşas'', the ''Ağas'', and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the [[Kadı]], and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further.
The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the ''Paşas'', the ''Ağas'', and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether [[Rayah|Raya]] or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the [[Kadı]], and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could appeal to a [[Kazasker]] (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further.


About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]], and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.
About the same time that Mahmud II instituted these changes, he set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan [[Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)|Imperial Council]], rather than abstaining from attendance. The practice of avoiding attending the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]. It was considered one of the causes of the Empire's decline by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.


Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the [[vakıf]]s, by placing their revenues under state administration (see [[Ministry of Evkaf]]). However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on [[alcoholic beverage]]s in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers.<ref name="Rogan2002" /> By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.<ref name="Rogan2002" />
Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses associated with [[waqf|awqaf]] (inalienable charitable endowments) by placing their revenues under state administration, the [[Ministry of Evkaf]]. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on [[alcoholic beverage]]s in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers.<ref name="Rogan2002" /> By the end of his reign, his reforms mainly had normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.<ref name="Rogan2002" />


The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under the oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the [[Köprülü family|Köprülüs]]. A firma dated 22 February 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."
The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and heavy taxes had long oppressed certain social classes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the spirit of the best of the [[Köprülü family]]. A firman dated 22 February 1834 abolished the charges public functionaries had long been accustomed to taking from locals when traversing the provinces. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."


The ''[[haraç]]'', or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the ''Kadı'', the Muslim governors, and the ''Ayans'', or municipal chiefs of ''Rayas'' in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.
The [[haraç]], or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the [[Kadi (Ottoman Empire)|[Kadı]]s or governors and the ''Ayan''s or municipal chiefs of the Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.


===Military reforms===
===Military reforms===
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[[Image:Mahmudiye (1829).jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Ottoman ship Mahmudiye|Mahmudiye]]'' (1829), built by the [[Imperial Arsenal (Ottoman Empire)|Imperial Arsenal]] on the [[Golden Horn]] in [[Constantinople]], was for many years the largest warship in the world. The 201 x 56 [[kadem]], or {{convert|76.15|x|21.22|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[ship of the line]] was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board. She participated in numerous important naval battles, including the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)]] during the [[Crimean War]].]]
[[Image:Mahmudiye (1829).jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Ottoman ship Mahmudiye|Mahmudiye]]'' (1829), built by the [[Imperial Arsenal (Ottoman Empire)|Imperial Arsenal]] on the [[Golden Horn]] in [[Constantinople]], was for many years the largest warship in the world. The 201 x 56 [[kadem]], or {{convert|76.15|x|21.22|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[ship of the line]] was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board. She participated in numerous important naval battles, including the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)]] during the [[Crimean War]].]]


Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the "[[Tımar]]"s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the ''Dere Beys'', the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.
Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the [[tımar]]s and [[ziamet]]s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the [[derebey]]s "valley lords", hereditary local chiefs with the power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs, which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.


The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of [[Cyprus]] became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by ''Dere Beys''.
The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not effected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this extraordinary measure, and ultimately the island of [[Cyprus]] became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by derebeys.


One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the [[Bektashi]] order) of the [[Janissary]] corps, event known as [[The Auspicious Incident]], in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, named the [[Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye]] (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish).
One of his most notable achievement was the abolition of the Janissaries through use of military force, execution, exile, and banning of the [[Bektashi]] religious order, event known as the [[Auspicious Incident]], in 1826, and the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, named the [[Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye]].


Following the loss of Greece after the [[Battle of Navarino]] against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the [[Ottoman Navy]] were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}, the 201 x 56 [[Traditional Turkish units of measurement#List of units|kadem]] (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or {{convert|76.15|x|21.22|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[ship of the line]] ''[[Ottoman ship Mahmudiye|Mahmudiye]]'', which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal ([[Tersâne-i Âmire]]) on the [[Golden Horn]] in [[Constantinople]] ([[Traditional Turkish units of measurement#List of units|kadem]], which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to [[Foot (unit)|one imperial foot]], hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)
Following the loss of Greece after the [[Battle of Navarino]] against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the [[Ottoman Navy]] were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}, the 201 x 56 [[Traditional Turkish units of measurement#List of units|kadem]] (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or {{convert|76.15|x|21.22|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[ship of the line]] ''[[Ottoman ship Mahmudiye|Mahmudiye]]'', which had 128 cannons on three decks and carried 1280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the [[Imperial Arsenal]] on the [[Golden Horn]] ([[Traditional Turkish units of measurement#List of units|kadem]], which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to [[Foot (unit)|one imperial foot]], hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)


===Other reforms===
===Other reforms===
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===Consorts===
===Consorts===
Mahmud II had at least nineteen consorts:<ref>Zilfi, Madeline, ''Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference'', p. 227.</ref><ref name="Brookes288">{{cite book |editor-last=Brookes |editor-first=Douglas Scott |year=2008 |title=The Concubine, the Princess, and the Teacher: Voices from the Ottoman Harem |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=9780292718425 |page=288 }}</ref><ref name="Issue 6 2010">MS: Milli saraylar, tarih kültür sanat mimarlık, Issue 6 . TBMM Milli Saraylar Daire Başkanlığı Yayını. 2010. p. 20.</ref><ref>Yedikita Dergisi. Yedikıta Aylık Tarih ve Kültür Dergisi Sayı: 132. 2019. p. 8.</ref><ref>Şentürk, Abdülmecit. Medine'nin figlio Emanetleri. Fahreddin Paşa'nın Yağmadan Kurtardığı Teberrükat Eşyası. "Kutsal Emanetler ve Fahreddin Paşa kitabı" . Türizm ve Kültür Bakanlığı. p. 301. ISBN 978-605-69885-0-9.</ref><ref>Sehsuvaroğlu, Haluk Y. (2005). Asırlar boyunca Istanbul: Eserleri, Olayları, Kültürü . Yenigün Haber Ajansı. pp. 139, 206.</ref><ref>Uluçay 2011, pp. 121–128</ref><ref>Kaya & Küçük 2011, p. 347.</ref><ref>Türklük araştırmaları dergisi, Edizioni 19–20 . Fakulte. 2008. p. 352.</ref><ref>Rıza Balıkhane Nazırı, Ali; Çoruk, Ali Şükrü (2001). Eski zamanlarda İstanbul hayatı – Libro 15 . Kitabevi. p. 301. ISBN 978-9-757-32133-0.</ref><ref>Sureyya, Mehmed (1996). Sicill-i Osmanî – Vol. 1. p. 18.</ref><ref>Haskan, Mehmet Nermi (2001). Yüzyıllar boyunca Üsküdar – Vol. 3. Üsküdar Belediyesi. pp. 1179, 1339. ISBN 978-9-759-76063-2.</ref>
Mahmud II had at least nineteen consorts:<ref>Zilfi, Madeline, ''Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference'', p. 227.</ref><ref name="Brookes288">{{cite book |editor-last=Brookes |editor-first=Douglas Scott |year=2008 |title=The Concubine, the Princess, and the Teacher: Voices from the Ottoman Harem |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=9780292718425 |page=288 }}</ref><ref name="Issue 6 2010">MS: Milli saraylar, tarih kültür sanat mimarlık, Issue 6 . TBMM Milli Saraylar Daire Başkanlığı Yayını. 2010. p. 20.</ref><ref>Yedikita Dergisi. Yedikıta Aylık Tarih ve Kültür Dergisi Sayı: 132. 2019. p. 8.</ref><ref>Şentürk, Abdülmecit. Medine'nin figlio Emanetleri. Fahreddin Paşa'nın Yağmadan Kurtardığı Teberrükat Eşyası. "Kutsal Emanetler ve Fahreddin Paşa kitabı" . Türizm ve Kültür Bakanlığı. p. 301. ISBN 978-605-69885-0-9.</ref><ref>Sehsuvaroğlu, Haluk Y. (2005). Asırlar boyunca Istanbul: Eserleri, Olayları, Kültürü . Yenigün Haber Ajansı. pp. 139, 206.</ref><ref>Uluçay 2011, pp. 121–128</ref><ref>Kaya & Küçük 2011, p. 347.</ref><ref>Türklük araştırmaları dergisi, Edizioni 19–20 . Fakulte. 2008. p. 352.</ref><ref>Rıza Balıkhane Nazırı, Ali; Çoruk, Ali Şükrü (2001). Eski zamanlarda İstanbul hayatı – Libro 15 . Kitabevi. p. 301. ISBN 978-9-757-32133-0.</ref><ref>Sureyya, Mehmed (1996). Sicill-i Osmanî – Vol. 1. p. 18.</ref><ref>Haskan, Mehmet Nermi (2001). Yüzyıllar boyunca Üsküdar – Vol. 3. Üsküdar Belediyesi. pp. 1179, 1339. ISBN 978-9-759-76063-2.</ref>
* Fatma Kadın (? – February 1809). [[Kadın (title)|BaşKadin]] (First Consort) for one year before her death.
* Fatma Kadın (? – February 1809). [[Kadın (title)|Başkadın]] (First Consort) for one year before her death.
* Alicenab Kadın (? – before 1839). BaşKadin after Fatma's death. Mother of at least one son.
* Alicenab Kadın (? – before 1839). BaşKadin after Fatma's death. Mother of at least one son.
* [[Nevfidan Kadın|Hacıye Pertevpiyale Nevfidan Kadın]] (4 January 1793 – 27 December 1855). Mahmud's concubine already when he was a prince (conceived their first daughter, Fatma Sultan, born six months after her father's accession to the throne, in this period, thus violating the rules of the harem that forbade the princes to have children until the eventual ascent al tronk), became BaşKadin after Alicenab's death. She was the mother of at least one son and four daughters, and she also raised [[Adile Sultan]] when she was orphaned on 1830. Abdülmecid I of her allowed her to go on pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], which earned her the name "''Haciye"''.
* [[Nevfidan Kadın]] (4 January 1793 – 27 December 1855). Mahmud's concubine already when he was a prince (conceived their first daughter, Fatma Sultan, born six months after her father acceded to the throne, in this period, thus violating the rules of the harem that forbade the princes to have children until the eventual ascent al tronk), became BaşKadin after Alicenab's death. She was the mother of at least one son and four daughters, and she also raised [[Adile Sultan]] when she was orphaned on 1830. Abdülmecid I of her allowed her to go on pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], which earned her the title [[Hajji|Haciye]].
* Dilseza Kadın (? – 1816). Second Kadın. Mother of at least two sons. Buried in the mausoleum of the Dolmabahçe Palace.
* Dilseza Kadın (? – 1816). Second Kadın. Mother of at least two sons. Buried in the mausoleum of the Dolmabahçe Palace.
* Mislinayab Kadın (? – before 1825). Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
* Mislinayab Kadın (? – before 1825). Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
* Kameri Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Kamerfer Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
* Kameri Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Kamerfer Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
* Ebrirefar Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Ebrureftar Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
* Ebrirefar Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Ebrureftar Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
* [[Bezmiâlem Sultan|Bezmialem Kadın]] (1807 – 2 May 1853). Called also Bazimialam Kadın. Georgian, she was educated by [[Esma Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid I)|Esma Sultan]], Mahmud II's sister, and, first to be a consort, she work in the hamam (freshroom) of her palace. Third Kadın and then Second Kadin from 1832. Mother and Valide Sultan of Abdülmecid I.
* [[Bezmiâlem Sultan]] (1807 – 2 May 1853). Called also Bazimialam Kadın. Georgian, she was educated by [[Esma Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid I)|Esma Sultan]], Mahmud II's sister, and, first to be a consort, she worked in the [[hamam]] of her palace. Third Kadın and then Second Kadin from 1832. Mother and [[Valide Sultan]] of Abdülmecid I.
* [[Aşubcan Kadın|Aşubcan Kadin]] (1793 – 10 June 1870). Mother of at least three daughters. Quinta Kadın in 1811 and then Second.
* [[Aşubcan Kadın|Aşubcan Kadın]] (1793 – 10 June 1870). Mother of at least three daughters. Quinta Kadın in 1811 and then Second.
* Vuslat Kadın (? – May 1831). Third Kadın.
* Vuslat Kadın (? – May 1831). Third Kadın.
* Zernigar Kadın (? – 1830). Of Armenian descent, her real name was Maryam. Educated by [[Esma Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid I)|Esma Sultan]], Mahmud II's half-sister. Mother of a daughter. Fourth Ikbal in 1826, then Seventh Kadın and finally Third Kadın.
* Zernigar Kadın (? – 1830). Of Armenian descent, her real name was Maryam. Educated by [[Esma Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid I)|Esma Sultan]], Mahmud II's half-sister. Mother of a daughter. Fourth Ikbal in 1826, then Seventh Kadın and finally Third Kadın.
* Nurtab Kadın (1810 – 2 January 1886). Fourth Kadın. She was the adoptive mother of [[Şevkefza Sultan]], mother of [[Murad V]]. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Nurtab Kadın (1810 – 2 January 1886). Fourth Kadın. She was the adoptive mother of [[Şevkefza Sultan]], mother of [[Murad V]]. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
* [[Hoşyar Kadın|Hacıye Hoşyar Kadın]] (? – 1859, Mecca). Mother of two daughters. Third Kadın and then Second. Tall and blonde, she had been educated by [[Beyhan Sultan (daughter of Mustafa III)|Beyhan Sultan]], daughter of [[Mustafa III]].
* [[Hoşyar Kadın]] (? – 1859, Mecca). Mother of two daughters. Third Kadın and then Second. Tall and blonde, she had been educated by [[Beyhan Sultan (daughter of Mustafa III)|Beyhan Sultan]], daughter of [[Mustafa III]].
* Pervizfekek Kadın (? – 21 September 1863). Mother of at least three daughters. She was Sixth Kadın in 1824. She was buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Pervizfekek Kadın (? – 21 September 1863). Mother of at least three daughters. She was Sixth Kadın in 1824. She was buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.
* [[Pertevniyal Sultan|Pertevniyal Kadın]] (1812 – 5 February 1883). Mother of two sons, including Abdülaziz I. Second [[Ikbal (title)|Ikbal]] and later Fifth Kadın.
* [[Pertevniyal Sultan|Pertevniyal Kadın]] (1812 – 5 February 1883). Mother of two sons, including Abdülaziz I. Second [[Ikbal (title)|Ikbal]] and later Fifth Kadın.
* Hüsnimelek Hanim (1807/1812 – October 1867). Also called Hüsnümelek Hanim. BaşIkbal (First Ikbal). She was educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's sister. He saw her play at a banquet hosted by her sister and asked for it for himself. She was of great musical talent, and she composed a song for the sultan, entitled ''Hüsnümelek bir peridir/Cümlesinin dilberidir.'' She did not live in the harem but in a separate wing of the palace. After Mahmud's death she became a dance teacher in the harem of his heir and son Abdülmecid I. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Hüsnimelek Hanim (1807/1812 – October 1867). Also called Hüsnümelek Hanim. BaşIkbal (First Ikbal). Esma Sultan, the sister of Mahmud II, educated her. He saw her play at a banquet hosted by her sister and asked for it for himself. She was of great musical talent, and she composed a song for the sultan, entitled ''Hüsnümelek bir peridir/Cümlesinin dilberidir.'' She did not live in the harem but in a separate wing of the palace. After Mahmud's death she became a dance teacher in the harem of his heir and son Abdülmecid I. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
* Tiryal Hanim (1810–1883). Third Ikbal. Perhaps the mother of a child, she loved Abdülaziz I as if he were her own son, and he too considered her a second mother, so much so that during his reign, he guaranteed her the same treatment as his own mother, making her live in the Beylerbeyi Palace and granting her wealth and prestige, and everyone considered Tiryal the second [[Valide sultan|Valide Sultan]]. Tiriyal donated her villa in Çamlıca to [[Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin|Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin]], Abdülaziz's eldest son, whom she considered her grandson. He built a glass pavilion and fountain in Çamlıca and a second fountain in Üsküdar. She took care of the education of [[Dilpesend Kadın]], who became the consort of [[Abdul Hamid II|Abdülhamid II]], grandson of Mahmud II through his son [[Abdulmejid I|Abdülmecid I]]. She was buried in the Yeni Cami, in front of the fountain built in her name.
* Tiryal Hanim (1810–1883). Third Ikbal. Perhaps the mother of a child, she loved Abdülaziz I as if he were her son. He considered her a second mother, to the extent that during his reign, he ensured she received the same treatment as his own mother, allowing her to reside in the Beylerbeyi Palace and bestow upon her wealth and prestige. Everyone considered Tiryal the second Valide Sultan. Tiriyal donated her villa in Çamlıca to [[Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin]], Abdülaziz's eldest son, whom she considered her grandson. He built a glass pavilion and fountain in Çamlıca and a second fountain in Üsküdar. She took care of the education of [[Dilpesend Kadın]], who became the consort of [[Abdülhamid II]], grandson of Mahmud II through his son [[Abdülmecid I]]. She was buried in the Yeni Cami, in front of the fountain built in her name.
* Lebrizfelek Hanim (1810 – 9 February 1865). Fourth Ikbal. She died in the Dolmabahçe Palace and was buried in the courtyard of the Yeni Cami.
* Lebrizfelek Hanim (1810 – 9 February 1865). Fourth Ikbal. She died in the Dolmabahçe Palace and was buried in the courtyard of the Yeni Cami.
* Verdicenan Hanım.  
* Verdicenan Hanım.


===Sons===
===Sons===
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[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Sons of sultans]]
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Latest revision as of 12:12, 26 June 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "Distinguish". Script error: No such module "other uses". Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox royalty Template:Contains special characters

Sultan
Sultan Mahmud II

Mahmud II (Template:Langx, Template:Langx; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey",[1] Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms. His disbandment of the conservative Janissary Corps removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire, creating the foundations of the subsequent Tanzimat era. Mahmud's reign was also marked by further Ottoman military defeats and loss of territory as a result of nationalist uprisings and European intervention.

Mahmud ascended the throne following an 1808 coup that deposed his half-brother Mustafa IV. Early in his reign, the Ottoman Empire ceded Bessarabia to Russia at the end of the 1806–1812 Russo-Turkish War. Greece waged a successful war of independence that started in 1821 with British, French and Russian support, and Mahmud was forced to recognize the independent Greek state in 1832. The Ottomans lost more territory to Russia after the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, and Ottoman Algeria was conquered by France beginning in 1830.

The Empire's continued decline convinced Mahmud to resume the reforms that were halted before he came to power. In 1826, he orchestrated the Auspicious Incident, in which the Kapıkulu were forcibly abolished and many of its members executed, paving the way for the establishment of a modern Ottoman army and further military reforms. With this modern army, Sultan Mahmud initiated a campaign of recentralization in the empire that saw the submission of derebeys and ayans to central authority. He also made sweeping changes to the bureaucracy to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency. He oversaw a reorganisation of the Ottoman foreign office. In 1838, Mahmud established the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances, and the following year, he introduced a Council of Ministers. He died of tuberculosis later that year and was succeeded by his son Abdülmecid I, who would continue to implement his modernization efforts.

Early life

Mahmud II was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramazan. He was the son of Abdul Hamid I and his Seventh consort Nakşidil Kadin. He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him, both dead in infancy. According to tradition, he was confined in the Kafes after the death of his father.[2]

Accession

In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor and half-brother, Mustafa IV, ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III, to defuse any rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, later became Mahmud II's vizier.

There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian Ahmed Cevdet Pasha gives the following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the chambers of the Kafes where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He ran to the roof of the Third Court, where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time, one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III, proclaimed Mahmud the padishah. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed as haznedar usta, chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the Altınyol or "Golden Way" of the Ottoman Imperial Harem is called the Staircase of Cevri Kalfa, since the events happened around there and are associated with her.[3]

Some of the Janissaries who brought Mahmud to power considered other candidates to put on the throne. Other candidates included Esma Sultan, the head of the Mevlevi Order in Konya, or a prince from the Giray dynasty of the former Crimean Khanate.[4]

Reign overview

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup d'état of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808, and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.

Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor Napoleon I of France declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian pressure on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his invasion of Russia. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia). However, it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In Transcaucasia, the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti, Anapa and Akhalkalaki. Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Imereti in 1810.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The treaty was approved by Emperor Alexander I of Russia on 11 June, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to retrieve many of their soldiers from the Balkans and return them to the western areas of the empire before Napoleon's expected attack.

War against the Saudi state

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File:Image-Abdullah bin Saud FSS2.JPG
Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud.

During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, successfully waged the Wahhabi war. He reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the First Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah.

Emir Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud had barred Muslims from the Ottoman Empire from entering the holy shrines of Mecca and Medina; his followers also desecrated the tombs of Ali, Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Emire Abdullah and his two followers were publicly beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques in 1819.[5]

Greek War of Independence

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File:Tugra Mahmuds II.gif
The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads "Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious".
File:Giuseppe Mazzola - The Attack of Ibrahim Pasha against Messolonghi.jpg
Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt attacks Missolonghi

His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece declaring independence following a rebellion that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest, he had ecumenical patriarch Gregory V executed on Easter 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising.[6] During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823), Mahmud II's superior force was routed by Abbas Mirza, resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the Treaties of Erzurum.[7] Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the French conquest of Algeria, an Ottoman province (see Ottoman Algeria) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups residing in the empire's territories, particularly in Europe, initiated their own independence movements.

The Auspicious Incident

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the Janissary corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon, effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops. He burned Belgrad Forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants.[8][9]Template:Full citation needed This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers from both Rumelia and Anatolia. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Albanian Ali Pasha of Yanina. Following the suppression of the Bosnian uprising, he sent his Grand Vizier to execute the Bosniak military commander Husein Gradaščević and dissolve the Bosnia Eyalet.

Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29

Another Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal von Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople. Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the Black Standard of Muhammad, and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. In the Divan, British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace.

Government reforms

File:II. Mahmud Türbesi 1860-1890 yılları.jpg
The mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud II during the period of 1860–1890.

In 1839, just before his death, he began preparations for reform, which included introducing a Council of Ministers [Meclis-i Vükela], and the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances [Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye].[10]Template:Rp The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.

He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows, from which comes most of what is now known as Turkish archery.[11]

Mahmud II died of tuberculosis in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdülmecid I succeeded him and announced an intention of general reorganization or Tanzimat with the Edict of Gülhane.

Reforms

Template:More citations needed section

Legal reforms

Among his reforms are the firmans (edicts) by which he closed the Court of Confiscations and took away much of the power of the Pashas.

File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art CAL-0334.jpg
Poem in praise of the prophet Muhammad, calligraphed and signed by Mahmud II[12]

Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile delators.

The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the Paşas, the Ağas, and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadı, and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could appeal to a Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further.

About the same time that Mahmud II instituted these changes, he set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan Imperial Council, rather than abstaining from attendance. The practice of avoiding attending the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. It was considered one of the causes of the Empire's decline by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.

Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses associated with awqaf (inalienable charitable endowments) by placing their revenues under state administration, the Ministry of Evkaf. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on alcoholic beverages in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers.[1] By the end of his reign, his reforms mainly had normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.[1]

The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and heavy taxes had long oppressed certain social classes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the spirit of the best of the Köprülü family. A firman dated 22 February 1834 abolished the charges public functionaries had long been accustomed to taking from locals when traversing the provinces. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."

The haraç, or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the [Kadıs or governors and the Ayans or municipal chiefs of the Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.

Military reforms

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File:Mahmudiye (1829).jpg
Mahmudiye (1829), built by the Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Constantinople, was for many years the largest warship in the world. The 201 x 56 kadem, or Template:Convert ship of the line was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board. She participated in numerous important naval battles, including the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) during the Crimean War.

Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the tımars and ziamets. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the derebeys "valley lords", hereditary local chiefs with the power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs, which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.

The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not effected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this extraordinary measure, and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by derebeys.

One of his most notable achievement was the abolition of the Janissaries through use of military force, execution, exile, and banning of the Bektashi religious order, event known as the Auspicious Incident, in 1826, and the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye.

Following the loss of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many yearsScript error: No such module "Unsubst"., the 201 x 56 kadem (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or Template:Convert ship of the line Mahmudiye, which had 128 cannons on three decks and carried 1280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn (kadem, which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot, hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)

Other reforms

Template:Multiple image

During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In that same year, Mahmud II established the new reformed Ministry of Finance which served as an official ministry of the previous defterdar position. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). This was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants.[13]Template:Full citation needed

Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress.[14] On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt a similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military.[15] He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law.[15] Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons.[16][17] Mahmud II's portraits also give a valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European military style and fez after 1826.

On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836.[18] He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with the highest military and civilian positions.[19] Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office, and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first being in Paris.[19] Despite the difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole especially in regards to modernization.

Family

Consorts

Mahmud II had at least nineteen consorts:[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]

  • Fatma Kadın (? – February 1809). Başkadın (First Consort) for one year before her death.
  • Alicenab Kadın (? – before 1839). BaşKadin after Fatma's death. Mother of at least one son.
  • Nevfidan Kadın (4 January 1793 – 27 December 1855). Mahmud's concubine already when he was a prince (conceived their first daughter, Fatma Sultan, born six months after her father acceded to the throne, in this period, thus violating the rules of the harem that forbade the princes to have children until the eventual ascent al tronk), became BaşKadin after Alicenab's death. She was the mother of at least one son and four daughters, and she also raised Adile Sultan when she was orphaned on 1830. Abdülmecid I of her allowed her to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, which earned her the title Haciye.
  • Dilseza Kadın (? – 1816). Second Kadın. Mother of at least two sons. Buried in the mausoleum of the Dolmabahçe Palace.
  • Mislinayab Kadın (? – before 1825). Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
  • Kameri Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Kamerfer Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
  • Ebrirefar Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Ebrureftar Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
  • Bezmiâlem Sultan (1807 – 2 May 1853). Called also Bazimialam Kadın. Georgian, she was educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's sister, and, first to be a consort, she worked in the hamam of her palace. Third Kadın and then Second Kadin from 1832. Mother and Valide Sultan of Abdülmecid I.
  • Aşubcan Kadın (1793 – 10 June 1870). Mother of at least three daughters. Quinta Kadın in 1811 and then Second.
  • Vuslat Kadın (? – May 1831). Third Kadın.
  • Zernigar Kadın (? – 1830). Of Armenian descent, her real name was Maryam. Educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's half-sister. Mother of a daughter. Fourth Ikbal in 1826, then Seventh Kadın and finally Third Kadın.
  • Nurtab Kadın (1810 – 2 January 1886). Fourth Kadın. She was the adoptive mother of Şevkefza Sultan, mother of Murad V. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
  • Hoşyar Kadın (? – 1859, Mecca). Mother of two daughters. Third Kadın and then Second. Tall and blonde, she had been educated by Beyhan Sultan, daughter of Mustafa III.
  • Pervizfekek Kadın (? – 21 September 1863). Mother of at least three daughters. She was Sixth Kadın in 1824. She was buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.
  • Pertevniyal Kadın (1812 – 5 February 1883). Mother of two sons, including Abdülaziz I. Second Ikbal and later Fifth Kadın.
  • Hüsnimelek Hanim (1807/1812 – October 1867). Also called Hüsnümelek Hanim. BaşIkbal (First Ikbal). Esma Sultan, the sister of Mahmud II, educated her. He saw her play at a banquet hosted by her sister and asked for it for himself. She was of great musical talent, and she composed a song for the sultan, entitled Hüsnümelek bir peridir/Cümlesinin dilberidir. She did not live in the harem but in a separate wing of the palace. After Mahmud's death she became a dance teacher in the harem of his heir and son Abdülmecid I. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
  • Tiryal Hanim (1810–1883). Third Ikbal. Perhaps the mother of a child, she loved Abdülaziz I as if he were her son. He considered her a second mother, to the extent that during his reign, he ensured she received the same treatment as his own mother, allowing her to reside in the Beylerbeyi Palace and bestow upon her wealth and prestige. Everyone considered Tiryal the second Valide Sultan. Tiriyal donated her villa in Çamlıca to Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin, Abdülaziz's eldest son, whom she considered her grandson. He built a glass pavilion and fountain in Çamlıca and a second fountain in Üsküdar. She took care of the education of Dilpesend Kadın, who became the consort of Abdülhamid II, grandson of Mahmud II through his son Abdülmecid I. She was buried in the Yeni Cami, in front of the fountain built in her name.
  • Lebrizfelek Hanim (1810 – 9 February 1865). Fourth Ikbal. She died in the Dolmabahçe Palace and was buried in the courtyard of the Yeni Cami.
  • Verdicenan Hanım.

Sons

File:Mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud II - sarcophagus of a sultan - P1030832.JPG
The sarcophagus of Sultan Mahmud II in his burial place.
File:Ottoman tombs Istanbul March 2008pano.jpg
Exterior view of the türbe of Sultan Mahmud II.

Mahmud had at least eighteen sons, of which only two lived to adulthood:[32][33][22][34][35][21][36]

  • Şehzade Murad (25 December 1811 – 14 July 1812). Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
  • Şehzade Bayezid (23 March 1812 – 25 June 1812) – with Dilseza Kadin. Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
  • Şehzade Abdülhamid (6 March 1813 – 20 April 1825) – with Alicenab Kadın. Buried in the mausoleum Nakşidil Sultan.
  • Şehzade Osman (12 June 1813 – 10 April 1814) – with Nevfidan Kadin. Twin of Emine Sultan. Buried in the Nurosmaniye Mosque.
  • Şehzade Ahmed (25 July 1814 – 16 July 1815). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Mehmed (26 August 1814 – November 1814) – with Dilseza Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Mehmed (4 August 1816 – August 1816). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Süleyman (29 August 1817 – 14 December 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Ahmed (13 October 1819 – December 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Ahmed (25 December 1819 – January 1820). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Abdüllah (1820 – 1820). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Mehmed (12 February 1822 – 23 October 1822). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Şehzade Ahmed (6 July 1822 – 9 April 1823). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Abdülmecid I (25 April 1823 – 25 June 1861) – with Bezmialem Kadın. 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the last sultan to be born on Topkapi Palace, after the imperial palace became the Beşiktaş Palace.
  • Şehzade Ahmed (5 December 1823 – 1824).
  • Şehzade Abdülhamid (18 February 1827 – 1829). Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
  • Abdulaziz (18 February 1830 – 4 June 1876) – with Pertevniyal Kadin. 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
  • Şehzade Nizameddin (29 December 1833 – March 1838) – with Pertevniyal Kadin or Tiriyal Hanim.

Daughters

Mahmud II had at least nineteen daughters, but only six survived infancy and only four reached the age of marriage:[37]

  • Fatma Sultan (4 February 1809 – 5 August 1809) – with Nevfidan Kadin. Her birth, the first in the imperial dynasty after 19 years and just six months after her father's accession to the throne, caused scandal, as it meant she must have been conceived when Mahmud was still Şehzade and confined to Kafes, which was forbidden at the time. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Nurosmaniye Mosque.
  • Ayşe Sultan (5 July 1809 – February 1810) – with Aşubcan Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Fatma Sultan (30 April 1810 – 7 May 1825) – with Nevfidan Kadin. She died of smallpox and was buried in the mausoleum Nakşidil Sultan.
  • Saliha Sultan (16 June 1811 – 5 February 1843) – with Aşubcan Kadin. She married once and had two sons and a daughter.
  • Şah Sultan (22 May 1812 – September 1814) – with Aşubcan Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Mihrimah Sultan (10 June 1812 – 3 July 1838) – with Hoşyar Kadın. She married once and had a son.
  • Emine Sultan (12 June 1813 – July 1814) – with Nevfidan Kadin. Twin sister of Şehzade Osman. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Atiye Sultan (2 January 1824 – 11 August 1850) – with Pervizfelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters.
  • Şah Sultan (14 October 1814 – 13 April 1817) – her mother was the Fourth Kadın. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Emine Sultan (7 January 1815 – 24 September 1816) – with Nevfidan Kadin. She died in Beylerbeyi Palace in a fire. She was buried in the Yahya Efendi mausoleum.
  • Zeynep Sultan (18 April 1815 – February 1816) – with Hoşyar Kadın. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Hamide Sultan (14 July 1817 – July 1817).
  • Cemile Sultan (1818 – 1818).
  • Hamide Sultan (4 July 1818 – 15 February 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
  • Münire Sultan (16 October 1824 – 23 May 1825). She died of smallpox and was buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
  • Hatice Sultan (6 September 1825 – 19 December 1842) – Pervizfelek Kadın. She died in the Beşiktaş Palace.
  • Adile Sultan (23 May 1826 – 12 February 1899) – with Zernigar Kadın. After being orphaned on 1830, she was raised by Navfidan Kadın. She married once and had a son and three daughters.
  • Fatma Sultan (20 July 1828 – 2 February 1839) – with Pervizfelek Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
  • Hayriye Sultan (22 March 1831 – 15 February 1833). She was buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.

In fiction

The 2006 historical detective novel The Janissary Tree, by Jason Goodwin, is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes.

The 1989 film Intimate Power, also known as The Favorite, is adapted from a historical fiction novel by Prince Michael of Greece. It portrays a legend about Aimée du Buc de Rivéry as a young captured French girl who, after spending years in an Ottoman harem, outlives two Sultans and protects Mahmud as his surrogate mother. Mahmud is a minor role in the film but is portrayed as both an adult and a child. The film concludes with a variation of his dramatic succession.

See also

References

Template:Reflist

  • Incorporates text from Edward Shepherd Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks; From the beginning of their empire to the present time (1878).

Bibliography

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Further reading

  • Levy, Avigdor. "The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud II's New Ottoman Army, 1826–39." International Journal of Middle East Studies (1971) 2#1 pp: 21–39. online
  • Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Ulema and the military reforms of Sultan Mahmud II." Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 13–39.
  • Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Corps in Sultan Mahmud II New Ottoman Army." International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (1971): pp 39+
  • Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1992) ch 6
  • Template:Cite EB1911

External links

Template:Commons category-inline

Template:S-relTemplate:S-endScript error: No such module "Navbox".Template:Sons of the Ottoman SultansTemplate:Authority control
Mahmud II
Born: 20 July 1785 Died: 1 July 1839
Regnal titles
Preceded byTemplate:S-bef/check Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
15 November 1808 – 1 July 1839 Template:S-ttl/check 		Template:S-aft/check Succeeded by
Preceded byTemplate:S-bef/check Caliph of the Ottoman Caliphate
15 November 1808 – 1 July 1839 Template:S-ttl/check 		Template:S-aft/check Succeeded by
  1. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Roel Meijer et al., Routledge Handbook of Citizenship in the Middle East and North Africa
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ A history of the Modern Middle East, Cleveland and Bunton p. 79
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Paul E Klopsteg. Turkish Archery and the Composite Bow. Chapter I, "Background of Turkish Archery". 2nd ed., rev., 1947, published by the author, Evanston, IL
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ A history of the Modern Middle East, Cleveland and Bunton p. 72
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Zilfi, Madeline, Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference, p. 227.
  21. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ a b MS: Milli saraylar, tarih kültür sanat mimarlık, Issue 6 . TBMM Milli Saraylar Daire Başkanlığı Yayını. 2010. p. 20.
  23. ↑ Yedikita Dergisi. Yedikıta Aylık Tarih ve Kültür Dergisi Sayı: 132. 2019. p. 8.
  24. ↑ Şentürk, Abdülmecit. Medine'nin figlio Emanetleri. Fahreddin Paşa'nın Yağmadan Kurtardığı Teberrükat Eşyası. "Kutsal Emanetler ve Fahreddin Paşa kitabı" . Türizm ve Kültür Bakanlığı. p. 301. ISBN 978-605-69885-0-9.
  25. ↑ Sehsuvaroğlu, Haluk Y. (2005). Asırlar boyunca Istanbul: Eserleri, Olayları, Kültürü . Yenigün Haber Ajansı. pp. 139, 206.
  26. ↑ Uluçay 2011, pp. 121–128
  27. ↑ Kaya & Küçük 2011, p. 347.
  28. ↑ Türklük araştırmaları dergisi, Edizioni 19–20 . Fakulte. 2008. p. 352.
  29. ↑ Rıza Balıkhane Nazırı, Ali; Çoruk, Ali Şükrü (2001). Eski zamanlarda İstanbul hayatı – Libro 15 . Kitabevi. p. 301. ISBN 978-9-757-32133-0.
  30. ↑ Sureyya, Mehmed (1996). Sicill-i Osmanî – Vol. 1. p. 18.
  31. ↑ Haskan, Mehmet Nermi (2001). Yüzyıllar boyunca Üsküdar – Vol. 3. Üsküdar Belediyesi. pp. 1179, 1339. ISBN 978-9-759-76063-2.
  32. ↑ Kaya & Küçük 2011, pp. 150–177, 277–300, 343–405
  33. ↑ Beydilli, Kemal; Suleyman, Mehmed Bin (2001). Bir imamın günlüğü . Tarih ve Tabiat Vakfi. p. 234.
  34. ↑ Ulçay 2011, p. 183.
  35. ↑ Madeline Zilfi, Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference, 227.
  36. ↑ Türk Kütüphaneciler Derneği bülteni, Vol. 12, Iss. 3–4. Dernek. 1963. p. 94.
  37. ↑ Ulçay 2011, pp. 188–201
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