Crocus: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
VisualWikitext
imported>Tom Radulovich
 
imported>AnomieBOT
 
(One intermediate revision by one other user not shown)
Line 21: Line 21:
}}
}}


'''''Crocus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|oʊ|k|ə|s}}; plural: crocuses or croci) is a [[genus]] of seasonal [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Iridaceae]] (iris family) comprising about 100 [[species]] of [[perennial plant|perennials]] growing from [[corm]]s. They are low growing plants, whose flower stems remain underground, that bear relatively large white, yellow, orange or purple flowers and then become dormant after flowering. Many are cultivated for their flowers, appearing in autumn, winter, or spring. The flowers close at night and in overcast weather conditions. The crocus has been known throughout recorded history, mainly as the source of [[saffron]]. Saffron is obtained from the dried [[Stigma (botany)|stigma]] of ''[[Crocus sativus]]'', an autumn-blooming [[species]]. It is valued as a [[spice]] and [[dye]]stuff, and is one of the most expensive spices in the world. Iran is the center of saffron production. Crocuses are [[native plant|native]] to woodland, scrub, and meadows from sea level to [[alpine tundra]] from the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], through [[North Africa]], central and southern [[Europe]], the islands of the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]], the [[Middle East]] and across [[Central Asia]] to [[Xinjiang]] in western [[China]]. Crocuses may be propagated from seed or from daughter cormels formed on the corm, that eventually produce mature plants. They arrived in Europe from Turkey in the 16th century and became valued as an [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]] flowering plant.
'''''Crocus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|oʊ|k|ə|s}}; plural: crocuses or croci) is a [[genus]] of seasonal [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Iridaceae]] (iris family) comprising about 100 [[species]] of [[perennial plant|perennials]] growing from [[corm]]s.
 
They are low growing plants, whose flower stems remain underground, that bear relatively large white, yellow, orange or purple flowers and then become dormant after flowering. Many are cultivated for their flowers, appearing in autumn, winter, or spring. The flowers close at night and in overcast weather conditions.
 
The crocus has been known throughout recorded history, mainly as the source of [[saffron]]. Saffron is obtained from the dried [[Stigma (botany)|stigma]] of ''[[Crocus sativus]]'', an autumn-blooming [[species]]. It is valued as a [[spice]] and [[dye]]stuff, and is one of the most expensive spices in the world. Iran is the center of saffron production.
 
Crocuses are [[native plant|native]] to woodland, scrub, and meadows from sea level to [[alpine tundra]] from the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], through [[North Africa]], central and southern [[Europe]], the islands of the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]], the [[Middle East]] and across [[Central Asia]] to [[Xinjiang]] in western [[China]]. Crocuses may be propagated from seed or from daughter cormels formed on the corm, that eventually produce mature plants. They arrived in Europe from Turkey in the 16th century and became valued as an [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]] flowering plant.
{{TOC limit|3}}
{{TOC limit|3}}


Line 34: Line 40:


=== Leaves ===
=== Leaves ===
Plants produce several basal linear bifacial green [[leaves]] that arise from the corms. These are [[Adaxial (botany)|adaxially]] (upper surface facing axis) flat or channelled with pale median stripes, while the opposite (abaxial) surface is strongly keeled, with two grooves on either side. The leaves have a distinctive shape in cross-section, being boat-shaped with two lateral arms with margins recurved inwardly towards the central ridged keel, forming the sides of the "boat". The keel may be square or rectangular, but is lacking in ''C. carpetanus''. The pale central stripe is caused by [[Ground tissue|parenchymatous]] cells which lack [[chloroplast]]s and may contain air spaces.{{sfn|Rudall|Mathew|1990}} The leaves are from {{convert|5 to 30|mm|in|frac=32}} wide and {{convert|10 to 118|cm|in|0}} long. The leaf-like [[bracts]] are membranous, while the smaller bracteoles are either membranous or absent.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}} The leaf bases are surrounded by up to 5 membranous sheaths called [[cataphylls]], a specialised leaf. The bases of the cataphylls form the corm tunic, and their number varies from 3 to 6, and enclose the true leaves (euphylls), bracts, bracteoles and flowering stalk.{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2015}}
Plants produce several basal linear bifacial green [[leaves]] that arise from the corms. These are [[Adaxial (botany)|adaxially]] (upper surface facing axis) flat or channelled with pale median stripes, while the opposite (abaxial) surface is strongly keeled, with two grooves on either side. The leaves have a distinctive shape in cross-section, being boat-shaped with two lateral arms with margins recurved inwardly towards the central ridged keel, forming the sides of the "boat". The keel may be square or rectangular, but is lacking in ''[[Crocus carpetanus|C. carpetanus]]''. The pale central stripe is caused by [[Ground tissue|parenchymatous]] cells which lack [[chloroplast]]s and may contain air spaces.{{sfn|Rudall|Mathew|1990}} The leaves are from {{convert|5 to 30|mm|in|frac=32}} wide and {{convert|10 to 118|cm|in|0}} long. The leaf-like [[bracts]] are membranous, while the smaller bracteoles are either membranous or absent.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}} The leaf bases are surrounded by up to 5 membranous sheaths called [[cataphylls]], a specialised leaf. The bases of the cataphylls form the corm tunic, and their number varies from 3 to 6, and enclose the true leaves (euphylls), bracts, bracteoles and flowering stalk.{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2015}}


=== Flowers ===
=== Flowers ===
The number of [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncles]] ([[flower]] [[plant stem|stems]]) vary from one to several and remain underground, emerging only at the fruiting stage, bearing flowers that are solitary or several, so that a true [[Scape (botany)|scape]] is absent. The flowers are [[pedicellate]] (attached to the peduncle by a short subterranean pedicel stalk). The pedicel is sometimes subtended (below pedicel) by a membranous, sheathing [[prophyll]] (leaf-like structure).{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}
The number of [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncles]] ([[flower]] [[plant stem|stems]]) vary from one to several and remain underground, emerging only at the fruiting stage, bearing flowers that are solitary or several, so that a true [[Scape (botany)|scape]] is absent. The flowers are [[pedicellate]] (attached to the peduncle by a short subterranean pedicel stalk). The pedicel is sometimes subtended (below pedicel) by a membranous, sheathing [[prophyll]] (leaf-like structure).{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}


The showy, salver to cup-shaped, single or clustered [[actinomorphic]] flowers taper off into a narrow tube; the flowers emerge from the ground, and can be white, yellow, lilac to dark purple, or [[Variegation|variegated]] in [[cultivar]]s. The flower tube is long, cylindrical and slender, expanding apically. The [[floral tube]] is long and narrow with 6 lobes in 2 [[Whorl (botany)|whorls]]. The [[perianth]] is 3+3 (3 sepals+3petals) and [[gamophyllous]] (with fused segments). The [[tepal]] whorls are similar, equal or subequal with a smaller inner whorl, and cupped to outspread. The bracts are membranous, but the inner ones are sometimes lacking.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}}
The showy, salver to cup-shaped, single or clustered [[actinomorphic]] flowers taper off into a narrow tube; the flowers emerge from the ground, and can be white, yellow, lilac to dark purple, or [[Variegation|variegated]] in [[cultivar]]s. The flower tube is long, cylindrical and slender, expanding apically. The [[floral tube]] is long and narrow with 6 lobes in 2 [[Whorl (botany)|whorls]]. The [[perianth]] is 3+3 (3 sepals+3 petals) and [[gamophyllous]] (with fused segments). The [[tepal]] whorls are similar, equal or subequal with a smaller inner whorl, and cupped to outspread. The bracts are membranous, but the inner ones are sometimes lacking.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}{{sfn|Mabberley|1997}}


The 3 [[stamen]]s are erect and linear and inserted in the throat of the perianth tube, with anthers shorter than the filaments. [[Pollen]] grains are inaperturate (apertures absent) but sometimes spiraperturate (spiral shaped).{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=307}} Each flower has a single [[Stigma (botany)|style]] which is [[exserted]] (projecting beyond the [[Corolla (flower)|corolla]] tube) and slender distally with three to many branches. The branches are highly variable, being short or long, and simple, bifurcate (dividing in two) or multifid and sometimes distally flattened. The inferior [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]] has 3 carpels with [[axile placentation]]. It remains underground, and as the [[seed]]s ripen, the [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]] (stem of the flower) grows longer so the [[fruit]] is above the soil surface.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}{{sfn|Ali|Mathew|2011}}
The 3 [[stamen]]s are erect and linear and inserted in the throat of the perianth tube, with anthers shorter than the filaments. [[Pollen]] grains are inaperturate (apertures absent) but sometimes spiraperturate (spiral shaped).{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998|p=307}} Each flower has a single [[Stigma (botany)|style]] which is [[exserted]] (projecting beyond the [[Corolla (flower)|corolla]] tube) and slender distally with three to many branches. The branches are highly variable, being short or long, and simple, bifurcate (dividing in two) or multifid and sometimes distally flattened. The inferior [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]] has 3 carpels with [[axile placentation]]. It remains underground, and as the [[seed]]s ripen, the [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]] (stem of the flower) grows longer so the [[fruit]] is above the soil surface.{{sfn|Goldblatt et al|1998}}{{sfn|Zhao et al|2004}}{{sfn|Ali|Mathew|2011}}
Line 79: Line 85:
| image3=Hortus Eystettensis, 1640 (BHL 45339 209) - Classis Aestiva 57.jpg|caption3=Crocuses<br />''[[Hortus Eystettensis]]'' 1613|alt3=Crocuses and other flowers from the Hortus Eystettensis of 1613| width3={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
| image3=Hortus Eystettensis, 1640 (BHL 45339 209) - Classis Aestiva 57.jpg|caption3=Crocuses<br />''[[Hortus Eystettensis]]'' 1613|alt3=Crocuses and other flowers from the Hortus Eystettensis of 1613| width3={{#expr: (150 * 1900 /1425) round 0}}
}}
}}
The crocus was well known to the ancients,{{sfn|Caiola|Canini|2010}} being described at least as early as [[Theophrastus]] (c. 371{{snd}}c. 287 BC),{{efn|As a perfume (ἀρωμάτων) "καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὸ κρόκινον· βέλτιστος δ’ ἐν Αἰγίνῃ καὶ Κιλικίᾳ (the saffron-perfume; the crocus which produces this is best in Aegina and Cilicia)". He also refers to the crocus as a spice (at 34), the word being interchangeable for either use{{sfn|Liddell|Scott|1996b}}}}{{sfn|Negbi|1989}} and was introduced into Britain by the Romans, where the saffron crocus was used as a [[dyestuff]]. It was reintroduced into Western Europe by the [[Crusaders]]. The crocus is mentioned in mediaeval and later [[herbals]], one of the earliest being the 14th century ''[[Tractatus de Herbis]].''{{sfn|BL|2022}}{{sfn|Pavord|2005|p=111}} [[William Turner (naturalist)|William Turner]] (1548) states that the crocus is referred to as saffron in English, implying that only ''C. sativus'' was known at that time.{{sfn|Turner|1548}} However, by 1597 [[John Gerard]] writes of "sundry sorts" and uses the term saffron and crocus as interchangeable. He included both spring and autumn flowering crocus, but distinguished Wild Saffron (Crocus) from Meadow Saffron ([[Colchicum]]). He described eleven forms. Some of his specimens were obtained from [[Carolus Clusius|Clusius]].{{sfn|Gerard|1597}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} In the following century, [[John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]] in a more detailed account was more careful to include separate chapters for ''Colchicum'', with the common name of meadow saffron, from ''Crocus'' or saffron. Parkinson (1656) states that there are "divers sorts of saffrons" describing 27 spring flowering plants and 4 autumn flowering ones, pointing out that only one of those was the true saffron crocus, which he called ''Crocus verus sativus autumnalis''.{{sfn|Parkinson|1656}} Similar accounts are found in continental European herbals, including those of [[Matthias de l'Obel|l'Obel]] in [[Flanders]] (1576){{sfn|l'Obel|1576}} and [[Basilius Besler|Besler]]'s ''[[Hortus Eystettensis]]'' in [[Bavaria]] (1613).{{sfn|Besler|1640}}
The crocus was well known to the ancients,{{sfn|Caiola|Canini|2010}} being described at least as early as [[Theophrastus]] (c. 371{{snd}}c. 287 BC),{{efn|As a perfume (ἀρωμάτων) "καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὸ κρόκινον· βέλτιστος δ' ἐν Αἰγίνῃ καὶ Κιλικίᾳ (the saffron-perfume; the crocus which produces this is best in Aegina and Cilicia)". He also refers to the crocus as a spice (at 34), the word being interchangeable for either use{{sfn|Liddell|Scott|1996b}}}}{{sfn|Negbi|1989}} and was introduced into Britain by the Romans, where the saffron crocus was used as a [[dyestuff]]. It was reintroduced into Western Europe by the [[Crusaders]]. The crocus is mentioned in mediaeval and later [[herbals]], one of the earliest being the 14th century ''[[Tractatus de Herbis]].''{{sfn|BL|2022}}{{sfn|Pavord|2005|p=111}} [[William Turner (naturalist)|William Turner]] (1548) states that the crocus is referred to as saffron in English, implying that only ''C. sativus'' was known at that time.{{sfn|Turner|1548}} However, by 1597 [[John Gerard]] writes of "sundry sorts" and uses the term saffron and crocus as interchangeable. He included both spring and autumn flowering crocus, but distinguished Wild Saffron (''Crocus'') from Meadow Saffron (''[[Colchicum]]''). He described eleven forms. Some of his specimens were obtained from [[Carolus Clusius|Clusius]].{{sfn|Gerard|1597}}{{sfn|Kerndorff et al|2016}} In the following century, [[John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]] in a more detailed account was more careful to include separate chapters for ''Colchicum'', with the common name of meadow saffron, from ''Crocus'' or saffron. Parkinson (1656) states that there are "divers sorts of saffrons" describing 27 spring flowering plants and 4 autumn flowering ones, pointing out that only one of those was the true saffron crocus, which he called ''Crocus verus sativus autumnalis''.{{sfn|Parkinson|1656}} Similar accounts are found in continental European herbals, including those of [[Matthias de l'Obel|l'Obel]] in [[Flanders]] (1576){{sfn|l'Obel|1576}} and [[Basilius Besler|Besler]]'s ''[[Hortus Eystettensis]]'' in [[Bavaria]] (1613).{{sfn|Besler|1640}}


The genus ''Crocus'' was first formally described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1753, with three [[taxa]], and two species, [[Crocus sativus|''C. sativus'']] ([[type species]]), [[var.]] ''officinalis'' (now treated as a synonym of ''C. sativus'') and var. ''vernus'' (now [[Crocus vernus|''C. vernus'']]) and ''C. bulbocodium'' (now ''[[Romulea bulbocodium]]''). Thus Linnaeus recognised two taxa that are accepted as separate species in modern classifications, one vernal and one autumnal crocus, but incorrectly assumed they were only varieties of a single species, while his second species was actually from a closely related genus that was only recognised later (1772).{{sfn|Maratti|1772}} However, a subsequent re-examination of Linnaeus's specimens suggested the presence of several different species that he did not recognise as being separate.{{sfn|Peruzzi et al|2013}} [[Linnaeus' system]], based on sexual characteristics, ''Crocus'' was classified as Triandra Monogynia (Three [[stamen]]s, Single [[Gynoecium|pistil]]).{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753}} Linnaeus's system was supplanted by the "natural" system which used a [[hierarchy]] of [[taxonomic ranks]] based on weighting of the importance of structural characteristics of the plant. [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Jussieu]]  (1789) placed the genus Crocus in his ''Ordo'' ([[Family (biology)|family]]) Irides or ''Les iris'', as a member of the class ''Stamina epigyna'' (stamens inserted above the ovary) as part of the [[monocotyledon]]s, the first level of the division of the [[flowering plant]]s.{{sfn|Jussieu|1789}}  
The genus ''Crocus'' was first formally described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1753, with three [[taxa]], and two species, [[Crocus sativus|''C. sativus'']] ([[type species]]), [[var.]] ''officinalis'' (now treated as a synonym of ''C. sativus'') and var. ''vernus'' (now [[Crocus vernus|''C. vernus'']]) and ''C. bulbocodium'' (now ''[[Romulea bulbocodium]]''). Thus Linnaeus recognised two taxa that are accepted as separate species in modern classifications, one vernal and one autumnal crocus, but incorrectly assumed they were only varieties of a single species, while his second species was actually from a closely related genus that was only recognised later (1772).{{sfn|Maratti|1772}} However, a subsequent re-examination of Linnaeus's specimens suggested the presence of several different species that he did not recognise as being separate.{{sfn|Peruzzi et al|2013}} [[Linnaeus' system]], based on sexual characteristics, ''Crocus'' was classified as Triandra Monogynia (Three [[stamen]]s, Single [[Gynoecium|pistil]]).{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753}} Linnaeus's system was supplanted by the "natural" system which used a [[hierarchy]] of [[taxonomic ranks]] based on weighting of the importance of structural characteristics of the plant. [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Jussieu]]  (1789) placed the genus Crocus in his ''Ordo'' ([[Family (biology)|family]]) Irides or ''Les iris'', as a member of the class ''Stamina epigyna'' (stamens inserted above the ovary) as part of the [[monocotyledon]]s, the first level of the division of the [[flowering plant]]s.{{sfn|Jussieu|1789}}  
Line 87: Line 93:
=== Botanical illustration ===
=== Botanical illustration ===


The scientific study of the genus in the late eighteenth century was accompanied by detailed descriptions with [[Botanical illustration]]s, such as those of [[William Curtis]] (1787) and [[John Sims (taxonomist)|Sims]] (1803),{{sfn|Sims|1803}} that appeared in [[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]], with illustrations by [[Sydenham Edwards]].{{sfn|Davies|2001}} Other illustrations are found in [[monograph]]s such as those of [[Adrian Hardy Haworth|Haworth]] (1809){{sfn|Haworth|1820}} and [[Joseph Sabine|Sabine]] (1830), illustrated by [[Charles John Robertson]].{{sfn|Sabine|1830}} The largest collection is found in the most comprehensive monograph, that of Maw (1886).{{sfn|Maw|1886}} Other sources include the portfolios of plates, such as the survey of the plants of France by [[Amédée Masclef|Masclef]] (1891). At that time only ''C. sativus'' and ''C. vernus'' were included in the [[Flora]] of France.{{sfn|Masclef|1890–1893}}  
The scientific study of the genus in the late eighteenth century was accompanied by detailed descriptions with [[Botanical illustration]]s, such as those of [[William Curtis]] (1787) and [[John Sims (taxonomist)|Sims]] (1803),{{sfn|Sims|1803}} that appeared in ''[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]]'', with illustrations by [[Sydenham Edwards]].{{sfn|Davies|2001}} Other illustrations are found in [[monograph]]s such as those of [[Adrian Hardy Haworth|Haworth]] (1809){{sfn|Haworth|1820}} and [[Joseph Sabine|Sabine]] (1830), illustrated by [[Charles John Robertson]].{{sfn|Sabine|1830}} The largest collection is found in the most comprehensive monograph, that of Maw (1886).{{sfn|Maw|1886}} Other sources include the portfolios of plates, such as the survey of the plants of France by [[Amédée Masclef|Masclef]] (1891). At that time only ''C. sativus'' and ''C. vernus'' were included in the [[Flora]] of France.{{sfn|Masclef|1890–1893}}  
{{
{{
multiple image | header = Botanical illustration| align = center | direction = | total_width= 550| float =  
multiple image | header = Botanical illustration| align = center | direction = | total_width= 550| float =  
Line 123: Line 129:
The availability of [[molecular phylogeny]] methods revealed problems with the traditional systems based on [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] alone. The first analysis of the complete genus was carried out by Mathew and colleagues in 2008 using [[nucleotide sequences]] from [[plastid]] regions. In particular, the DNA data suggest there are no grounds for isolating ''C. banaticus'' in its own subgenus ''Crociris'', though it is a unique species in the genus. Because it has a prophyll at the base of the pedicel, it therefore would fall within section ''Crocus'', although its exact relationship to the rest of the subgenus remains unclear.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}
The availability of [[molecular phylogeny]] methods revealed problems with the traditional systems based on [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] alone. The first analysis of the complete genus was carried out by Mathew and colleagues in 2008 using [[nucleotide sequences]] from [[plastid]] regions. In particular, the DNA data suggest there are no grounds for isolating ''C. banaticus'' in its own subgenus ''Crociris'', though it is a unique species in the genus. Because it has a prophyll at the base of the pedicel, it therefore would fall within section ''Crocus'', although its exact relationship to the rest of the subgenus remains unclear.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}


Of the 15 series in the Mathew scheme, only seven were [[monophyletic]], and in particular the largest series, ''Biflori'' and ''Reticulati'', which include a third of all species, were non-monophyletic. Another anomalous species, ''C. baytopiorum'', should now be placed in a series of its own, series ''Baytopi''. ''C. gargaricus'' subsp. ''herbertii'' has been raised to species status, as ''C. herbertii''. The autumn-flowering ''C. longiflorus'', the [[type species]] of series ''Longiflori'' (long regarded by Mathew as "a disparate assemblage"), appeared to lie within series ''Verni''. In addition, the position of ''C. malyi'' was currently unclear.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}
Of the 15 series in the Mathew scheme, only seven were [[monophyletic]], and in particular the largest series, ''Biflori'' and ''Reticulati'', which include a third of all species, were non-monophyletic. Another anomalous species, ''[[Crocus baytopiorum|C. baytopiorum]]'', should now be placed in a series of its own, series ''Baytopi''. ''C. gargaricus'' subsp. ''herbertii'' has been raised to species status, as ''C. herbertii''. The autumn-flowering ''C. longiflorus'', the [[type species]] of series ''Longiflori'' (long regarded by Mathew as "a disparate assemblage"), appeared to lie within series ''Verni''. In addition, the position of ''C. malyi'' was currently unclear.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}


DNA analysis and morphological studies suggest further that series ''Reticulati'', ''Biflori'' and ''Speciosi'' are "probably inseparable", ''C. adanensis'' and ''C. caspius'' should probably be removed from ''Biflori'', ''C. adanensis'' falls in a clade with ''C. paschei'' as a sister group to the species of series ''Flavi'' and ''C. caspius'' appears to be sister to the species of series ''Orientales''.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}
DNA analysis and morphological studies suggest further that series ''Reticulati'', ''Biflori'' and ''Speciosi'' are "probably inseparable", ''C. adanensis'' and ''C. caspius'' should probably be removed from ''Biflori'', ''C. adanensis'' falls in a clade with ''C. paschei'' as a sister group to the species of series ''Flavi'' and ''C. caspius'' appears to be sister to the species of series ''Orientales''.{{sfn|Petersen et al|2008}}{{sfn|Harpke et al|2013}}
Line 234: Line 240:
Crocuses were described in Turkish gardens in the early sixteenth century,{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=72}} gathered from the far reaches of the [[Ottoman Empire]],{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=169}} where they were seen by visiting European botanists and explorers, among the first of whom was [[Pierre Belon]] who arrived in Constantinople in 1547. The first crocus seen in the [[Netherlands]], where crocus species were not native, were from corms brought to Vienna in 1562 from Constantinople by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador to the [[Sublime Porte]], [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq]]. A few corms were forwarded to [[Carolus Clusius]] at the [[Hortus Botanicus Leiden|botanical garden]] in [[Leiden]].{{sfn|Harris|2022}} These were almost certainly cultivated varieties rather than wild species.{{sfn|Harvey|1976}} European visitors to Turkey continued to bring back specimens for gardens in their own country. Prominent among the latter were the gardens at [[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]] in the Netherlands. Jehan Somer, a Middelburg merchant, brought back crocuses among his other specimens in 1592, where they attracted the attention not only of Clusius but of the early Dutch flower painters, notably [[Ambrosius Bosschaert]].{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=87}}{{sfn|Goldgar|2008|p=22}} By 1620, new garden varieties had been developed, and featured in contemporary illustrations, such as that of [[Van de Passe family|Crispijn van de Passe]] in his ''Hortus floridus'' of 1614.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=87}} There are accounts of crocus gardens in the seventeenth century, such as the Saffron Garth of Walter Stonehouse at [[Darfield, South Yorkshire|Darfield]], Yorkshire.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=204}}
Crocuses were described in Turkish gardens in the early sixteenth century,{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=72}} gathered from the far reaches of the [[Ottoman Empire]],{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=169}} where they were seen by visiting European botanists and explorers, among the first of whom was [[Pierre Belon]] who arrived in Constantinople in 1547. The first crocus seen in the [[Netherlands]], where crocus species were not native, were from corms brought to Vienna in 1562 from Constantinople by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador to the [[Sublime Porte]], [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq]]. A few corms were forwarded to [[Carolus Clusius]] at the [[Hortus Botanicus Leiden|botanical garden]] in [[Leiden]].{{sfn|Harris|2022}} These were almost certainly cultivated varieties rather than wild species.{{sfn|Harvey|1976}} European visitors to Turkey continued to bring back specimens for gardens in their own country. Prominent among the latter were the gardens at [[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]] in the Netherlands. Jehan Somer, a Middelburg merchant, brought back crocuses among his other specimens in 1592, where they attracted the attention not only of Clusius but of the early Dutch flower painters, notably [[Ambrosius Bosschaert]].{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=87}}{{sfn|Goldgar|2008|p=22}} By 1620, new garden varieties had been developed, and featured in contemporary illustrations, such as that of [[Van de Passe family|Crispijn van de Passe]] in his ''Hortus floridus'' of 1614.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=87}} There are accounts of crocus gardens in the seventeenth century, such as the Saffron Garth of Walter Stonehouse at [[Darfield, South Yorkshire|Darfield]], Yorkshire.{{sfn|Willes|2011|p=204}}


Crocuses are among the most important [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]] [[geophytes]] in the global flower industry,{{sfn|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012|p=xv}} ranking sixth in terms of Dutch bulb production (2003–2008) with 463–668&nbsp;[[hectare|ha]] under cultivation.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=2}} The crocus is one of the most popular flowers found in the garden in the late winter and early spring.{{sfn|Harris|2022}} About 30 of the species are cultivated, among the most popular being ''C. chrysanthus, C. flavus, C. sieberi, C. tommasinianus and C. vernus'', together with hundreds of cultivars derived from them.{{sfn|Harris|2022}}{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}} Both fall and spring blooming crocuses are cultivated for their flowers.{{sfn|Viette et al|2015}} Among the first flowers to bloom in spring, their flowering time can vary from fall to the late winter blooming ''C. tommasinianus''; the earliest fall blooming species, ''C. scharojanii'', may flower during the last weeks of July.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=68}}
Crocuses are among the most important [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]] [[geophytes]] in the global flower industry,{{sfn|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012|p=xv}} ranking sixth in terms of Dutch bulb production (2003–2008) with 463–668&nbsp;[[hectare|ha]] under cultivation.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=2}} The crocus is one of the most popular flowers found in the garden in the late winter and early spring.{{sfn|Harris|2022}} About 30 of the species are cultivated, among the most popular being ''[[Crocus chrysanthus|C. chrysanthus]]'', ''C. flavus'', ''[[Crocus sieberi|C. sieberi]]'', ''[[Crocus tommasinianus|C. tommasinianus]]'' and ''C. vernus'', together with hundreds of cultivars derived from them.{{sfn|Harris|2022}}{{sfn|Kafi et al|2018}} Both fall and spring blooming crocuses are cultivated for their flowers.{{sfn|Viette et al|2015}} Among the first flowers to bloom in spring, their flowering time can vary from fall to the late winter blooming ''C. tommasinianus''; the earliest fall blooming species, ''C. scharojanii'', may flower during the last weeks of July.{{sfn|Ruksans|2011|p=68}}


The varieties cultivated for decoration in gardens and pots mainly represent six species: ''C. vernus'', ''C. chrysanthus'', ''C. flavus'', ''C. sieberi'', ''C. speciosus'' and ''C.&nbsp;tommasinianus''. During the horticulture production year 2009/2010, more than 70 cultivars were grown in Holland, covering an area of 366 [[hectare]]s; the most common ones were 'Flower Record' and 'King of the Stripes' which accounted for 42 hectares, other species grown included ''C. chrysanthus'', ''C. tommasinianus'', and ''C. flavus'' - all are spring blooming plants.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=81}} But the most commonly grown plants are the Dutch hybrids with large flowers in a rich palette of colors.{{sfn|Bush-Brown et al|1996}}
The varieties cultivated for decoration in gardens and pots mainly represent six species: ''C. vernus'', ''C. chrysanthus'', ''C. flavus'', ''C. sieberi'', ''C. speciosus'' and ''C.&nbsp;tommasinianus''. During the horticulture production year 2009/2010, more than 70 cultivars were grown in Holland, covering an area of 366 [[hectare]]s; the most common ones were 'Flower Record' and 'King of the Stripes' which accounted for 42 hectares, other species grown included ''C. chrysanthus'', ''C. tommasinianus'', and ''C. flavus'' - all are spring blooming plants.{{sfn|De Hertogh et al|2012|p=81}} But the most commonly grown plants are the Dutch hybrids with large flowers in a rich palette of colors.{{sfn|Bush-Brown et al|1996}}
Line 318: Line 324:
* {{cite book |last1=Betancourt |first1=Philip P. |title=Introduction to Aegean Art |date= 2007 |publisher=[[INSTAP]] Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory) |location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-62303-086-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4cIEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Betancourt |first1=Philip P. |title=Introduction to Aegean Art |date= 2007 |publisher=[[INSTAP]] Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory) |location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-62303-086-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4cIEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldgar |first1=Anne |title=Tulipmania: Money, Honor, and Knowledge in the Dutch Golden Age |date=15 September 2008 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-30130-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gViwLbCJ7X0C }}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldgar |first1=Anne |title=Tulipmania: Money, Honor, and Knowledge in the Dutch Golden Age |date=15 September 2008 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-30130-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gViwLbCJ7X0C }}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Kubitzki|editor-first1=Klaus|editor-last2=Huber|editor-first2=Herbert|editor-link1=Klaus Kubitzki|editor-link2=Herbert Huber (botanist)|series=The families and genera of vascular plants |volume=3 |title=Flowering plants. Monocotyledons: Lilianae (except Orchidaceae)  |year=1998|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=Berlin |isbn=3-540-64060-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC |last1=Goldblatt|first1=P|authorlink1=Peter Goldblatt|last2=Manning|first2=J C|authorlink2=John Charles Manning|last3=Rudall|first3=P|authorlink3=Paula Rudall|chapter=Iridaceae: 61 Crocus L.|pages=330–331|ref={{harvid|Goldblatt et al|1998}}}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Kubitzki|editor-first1=Klaus|editor-last2=Huber|editor-first2=Herbert|editor-link1=Klaus Kubitzki|editor-link2=Herbert Huber (botanist)|series=The families and genera of vascular plants |volume=3 |title=Flowering plants. Monocotyledons: Lilianae (except Orchidaceae)  |year=1998|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=Berlin |isbn=3-540-64060-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC |last1=Goldblatt|first1=P|author-link1=Peter Goldblatt|last2=Manning|first2=J C|author-link2=John Charles Manning|last3=Rudall|first3=P|author-link3=Paula Rudall|chapter=Iridaceae: 61 Crocus L.|pages=330–331|ref={{harvid|Goldblatt et al|1998}}}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Grey-Wilson |first1=C. |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |authorlink2=Brian Mathew|others=Illustrated by Marjorie Blamey  |year=1981 |title=Bulbs: the bulbous plants of Europe and their allies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxRIAAAAYAAJ|location=London |publisher=[[William Collins, Sons|Collins]] |isbn=978-0-00-219211-8 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Grey-Wilson |first1=C. |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |author-link2=Brian Mathew|others=Illustrated by Marjorie Blamey  |year=1981 |title=Bulbs: the bulbous plants of Europe and their allies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxRIAAAAYAAJ|location=London |publisher=[[William Collins, Sons|Collins]] |isbn=978-0-00-219211-8 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Heilman |editor1-first=Christine |title=Simple Steps to Success: Pests and Diseases |date=2010 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society; Dorling Kindersley |location=NY |isbn=978-0-7566-6996-6 |edition=US |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-loMXA1N_YC }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Heilman |editor1-first=Christine |title=Simple Steps to Success: Pests and Diseases |date=2010 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society; Dorling Kindersley |location=NY |isbn=978-0-7566-6996-6 |edition=US |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-loMXA1N_YC }}
* {{cite book |last1=Innes |first1=Clive |title=The World of Iridaceae: A Comprehensive Record |date=1985 |publisher=Holly Gate International |location=[[Ashington, West Sussex|Ashington]], Sussex|isbn=978-0-948236-01-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OCAmAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Innes |first1=Clive |title=The World of Iridaceae: A Comprehensive Record |date=1985 |publisher=Holly Gate International |location=[[Ashington, West Sussex|Ashington]], Sussex|isbn=978-0-948236-01-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OCAmAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jelitto |first1=Leo |last2=Schacht |first2=Wilhelm |last3=Fessler |first3=Alfred |title=Hardy Herbaceous Perennials |trans-title=Die Freiland-Schmuckstauden|others=trans. Michael E Epp|date=1990 |orig-year=1950 Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart|publisher=[[Timber Press]] |location=[[Portland, Oregon]]|isbn=978-0-88192-159-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utVnAQAACAAJ|edition=3rd.|volume=1 A–K |chapter=Crocus L. Iridaceae|pages=168–174|ref={{harvid|Jelitto et al|1990}}}}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/hardyherbaceousp0000jeli here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jelitto |first1=Leo |last2=Schacht |first2=Wilhelm |last3=Fessler |first3=Alfred |title=Hardy Herbaceous Perennials |trans-title=Die Freiland-Schmuckstauden|others=trans. Michael E Epp|date=1990 |orig-date=1950 Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart|publisher=[[Timber Press]] |location=[[Portland, Oregon]]|isbn=978-0-88192-159-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utVnAQAACAAJ|edition=3rd.|volume=1 A–K |chapter=Crocus L. Iridaceae|pages=168–174|ref={{harvid|Jelitto et al|1990}}}}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/hardyherbaceousp0000jeli here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book|editor-first1=Rina |editor-last1=Kamenetsky |editor-first2=Hiroshi |editor-last2=Okubo |title=Ornamental Geophytes: From Basic Science to Sustainable Production|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC|year=2012 |publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8}}
* {{cite book|editor-first1=Rina |editor-last1=Kamenetsky |editor-first2=Hiroshi |editor-last2=Okubo |title=Ornamental Geophytes: From Basic Science to Sustainable Production|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC|year=2012 |publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Koocheki|editor-first1=Alireza|editor-last2=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor-first2=Mohammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8i2DwAAQBAJ|title=Saffron: Science, Technology and Health|date=2020|publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing]]|series=Food Science, Technology and Nutrition|isbn=978-0-12-818740-1}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Koocheki|editor-first1=Alireza|editor-last2=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor-first2=Mohammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8i2DwAAQBAJ|title=Saffron: Science, Technology and Health|date=2020|publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing]]|series=Food Science, Technology and Nutrition|isbn=978-0-12-818740-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lehner |first1=Ernst |last2=Lehner |first2=Johanna |title=Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants and Trees |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1MsNIoiFOcC&pg=PA56|date=2003 |origyear=1960 Tudor Publishing|publisher=[[Courier Corporation]] |isbn=978-0-486-42978-6|chapter=The Crocus|page=56  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lehner |first1=Ernst |last2=Lehner |first2=Johanna |title=Folklore and Symbolism of Flowers, Plants and Trees |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1MsNIoiFOcC&pg=PA56|date=2003 |orig-date=1960 Tudor Publishing|publisher=[[Courier Corporation]] |isbn=978-0-486-42978-6|chapter=The Crocus|page=56  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |authorlink=Brian Mathew|title=The Crocus: A Revision of the Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) |date=1983 |origyear=1982|publisher=[[Timber Press]] |location=Portland, Oregon|isbn=978-0-917304-23-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQwmAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |author-link=Brian Mathew|title=The Crocus: A Revision of the Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) |date=1983 |orig-date=1982|publisher=[[Timber Press]] |location=Portland, Oregon|isbn=978-0-917304-23-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQwmAQAAMAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Negbi|editor-first=Moshe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uLSGgd9sEOUC|title=Saffron: Crocus sativus L.|date=1999|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=978-0-203-30366-5}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Negbi|editor-first=Moshe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uLSGgd9sEOUC|title=Saffron: Crocus sativus L.|date=1999|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=978-0-203-30366-5}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Ozturk|editor-first1=Munir|editor-last2=Hakeem|editor-first2=Khalid Rehman|editor-last3=Ashraf|editor-first3=Muhammad|editor-last4=Ahmad|editor-first4=Muhammad Sajid Aqeel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eC1bDwAAQBAJ|title=Global Perspectives on Underutilized Crops|date=2018|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-319-77776-4|last1=Kafi|first1=Muhammad|last2=Kamili|first2=Azra N|last3=Husaini|first3=Amjad N|display-authors=et al|chapter=An expensive spice saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Case Study from Kashmir, Iran and Turkey|pages=109–150|ref={{harvid|Kafi et al|2018}}}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Ozturk|editor-first1=Munir|editor-last2=Hakeem|editor-first2=Khalid Rehman|editor-last3=Ashraf|editor-first3=Muhammad|editor-last4=Ahmad|editor-first4=Muhammad Sajid Aqeel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eC1bDwAAQBAJ|title=Global Perspectives on Underutilized Crops|date=2018|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-319-77776-4|last1=Kafi|first1=Muhammad|last2=Kamili|first2=Azra N|last3=Husaini|first3=Amjad N|display-authors=et al|chapter=An expensive spice saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Case Study from Kashmir, Iran and Turkey|pages=109–150|ref={{harvid|Kafi et al|2018}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Palyvou |first1=Clairy |title=Akrotiri, Thera: An Architecture of Affluence 3,500 Years Old |date= 2005 |publisher=[[INSTAP]] Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory) |isbn=978-1-62303-068-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAQVEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Palyvou |first1=Clairy |title=Akrotiri, Thera: An Architecture of Affluence 3,500 Years Old |date= 2005 |publisher=[[INSTAP]] Academic Press (Institute for Aegean Prehistory) |isbn=978-1-62303-068-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAQVEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book|last1=Pavord|first1=Anna|authorlink=Anna Pavord|title=The naming of names the search for order in the world of plants.|date=2005|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing USA]] |location=New York|isbn=978-1-59691-965-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qksX1BeWkqcC}}{{link note|note= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wvP92qGbI08C additional excerpts] }}
* {{cite book|last1=Pavord|first1=Anna|author-link=Anna Pavord|title=The naming of names the search for order in the world of plants.|date=2005|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing USA]] |location=New York|isbn=978-1-59691-965-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qksX1BeWkqcC}}{{link note|note= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wvP92qGbI08C additional excerpts] }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ranđelović |first1=Novica |last2=Hill |first2=David A. |title=The Genus Crocus L. in Serbia |date=1990 |publisher=[[Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]] |location=Belgrade|isbn=978-86-7025-117-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4wGSAAACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ranđelović |first1=Novica |last2=Hill |first2=David A. |title=The Genus Crocus L. in Serbia |date=1990 |publisher=[[Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]] |location=Belgrade|isbn=978-86-7025-117-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4wGSAAACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula |authorlink=Paula Rudall|title=Anatomy of the Monocotyledons: VIII Iridaceae |date=1995 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0198545040 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2-4zQEACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula |author-link=Paula Rudall|title=Anatomy of the Monocotyledons: VIII Iridaceae |date=1995 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-854504-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2-4zQEACAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Tsimidou|editor-first1=Maria Z.|editor-last2=Polissiou|editor-first2=Moschos|editor-last3=Fernández|editor-first3=José Antonio|title=Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Saffron: Forthcoming Challenges in Cultivation, Research and Economics, Krokos, Greece, May 20 2009|url=https://www.ishs.org/ishs-book/850|date=2010|publisher=[[International Society for Horticultural Science|ISHS]] 850|isbn=978-90-6605-732-6|last1= Sevinç Kravkaz|first1=I.|last2= Vurdu|first2=H.|chapter=Botany of Crocus ancyrensis through Domestication|pages=61–65}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Tsimidou|editor-first1=Maria Z.|editor-last2=Polissiou|editor-first2=Moschos|editor-last3=Fernández|editor-first3=José Antonio|title=Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Saffron: Forthcoming Challenges in Cultivation, Research and Economics, Krokos, Greece, May 20 2009|url=https://www.ishs.org/ishs-book/850|date=2010|publisher=[[International Society for Horticultural Science|ISHS]] 850|isbn=978-90-6605-732-6|last1= Sevinç Kravkaz|first1=I.|last2= Vurdu|first2=H.|chapter=Botany of Crocus ancyrensis through Domestication|pages=61–65}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Runkel|first1=Sylvan T.|last2=Roosa|first2=Dean M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyLjHnUap0UC|title=Wildflowers of the Tallgrass Prairie: The Upper Midwest|date= 2009|publisher=[[University of Iowa Press]]|isbn=978-1-58729-844-8|edition=2nd.|orig-year=1989}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Runkel|first1=Sylvan T.|last2=Roosa|first2=Dean M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyLjHnUap0UC|title=Wildflowers of the Tallgrass Prairie: The Upper Midwest|date= 2009|publisher=[[University of Iowa Press]]|isbn=978-1-58729-844-8|edition=2nd.|orig-date=1989}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ruksans|first=Janis|title=Crocuses: A Complete Guide to the Genus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3pqFWjcZphMC&pg=PA17|date=2011|publisher=[[Timber Press]]|isbn=978-1-60469-106-1}}{{link note|note=[https://www.amazon.ca/Crocuses-Complete-Guide-Janis-Ruksans/dp/1604691069 ''excerpts available here'']}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ruksans|first=Janis|title=Crocuses: A Complete Guide to the Genus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3pqFWjcZphMC&pg=PA17|date=2011|publisher=[[Timber Press]]|isbn=978-1-60469-106-1}}{{link note|note=[https://www.amazon.ca/Crocuses-Complete-Guide-Janis-Ruksans/dp/1604691069 ''excerpts available here'']}}


Line 340: Line 346:


* {{Cite book|last=Armitage|first=Allan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kA6VgfxsstIC|title=Herbaceous Perennial Plants: A Treatise on their Identification, Culture, and Garden Attributes|date=2008|publisher=[[Cool Springs Press]]|isbn=978-1-61058-380-0|edition=3rd|chapter=Crocus|pages=301–308}}
* {{Cite book|last=Armitage|first=Allan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kA6VgfxsstIC|title=Herbaceous Perennial Plants: A Treatise on their Identification, Culture, and Garden Attributes|date=2008|publisher=[[Cool Springs Press]]|isbn=978-1-61058-380-0|edition=3rd|chapter=Crocus|pages=301–308}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bowles |first1=E. A. |authorlink=Edward Augustus Bowles|title=A Handbook of Crocus and Colchicum for Gardeners |date=1985 |origyear=1924|publisher=Waterstone |isbn=978-0-947752-26-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9tFAAAAYAAJ }}{{link note|note=1st ed. Available [https://archive.org/details/handbookofcrocus00bowl here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bowles |first1=E. A. |author-link=Edward Augustus Bowles|title=A Handbook of Crocus and Colchicum for Gardeners |date=1985 |orig-date=1924|publisher=Waterstone |isbn=978-0-947752-26-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9tFAAAAYAAJ }}{{link note|note=1st ed. Available [https://archive.org/details/handbookofcrocus00bowl here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Hanson|editor-first=Beth|title=Spring-blooming Bulbs: An A to Z Guide to Classic and Unusual Bulbs for Your Spring Garden|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ4lbhOI13sC&pg=PA70|date=2002|publisher=[[Brooklyn Botanic Garden]]|isbn=978-1-889538-54-9|series=21st-Century Gardening, No. 173|last1=Burrell|first1=C Colston|last2=Hardiman|first2=Lucy|chapter=Encyclopedia of Spring-Blooming Bulbs: Crocus pp.&nbsp;68–70|pages=52–100}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Hanson|editor-first=Beth|title=Spring-blooming Bulbs: An A to Z Guide to Classic and Unusual Bulbs for Your Spring Garden|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJ4lbhOI13sC&pg=PA70|date=2002|publisher=[[Brooklyn Botanic Garden]]|isbn=978-1-889538-54-9|series=21st-Century Gardening, No. 173|last1=Burrell|first1=C Colston|last2=Hardiman|first2=Lucy|chapter=Encyclopedia of Spring-Blooming Bulbs: Crocus pp.&nbsp;68–70|pages=52–100}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bush-Brown |first1=Louise |last2=Bush-Brown |first2=James |last3=Irwin |first3=Howard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nk6AQAAIAAJ|
* {{cite book |last1=Bush-Brown |first1=Louise |last2=Bush-Brown |first2=James |last3=Irwin |first3=Howard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nk6AQAAIAAJ|
title=America's Garden Book |date= 1996 |origyear=1939|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |location=New York|isbn=978-0-02-860995-9|chapter=Crocus Spp. and Cvs.|page=388 |ref={{harvid|Bush-Brown et al|1996}} }}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/americasgardenbo00bush_0 here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
title=America's Garden Book |date= 1996 |orig-date=1939|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |location=New York|isbn=978-0-02-860995-9|chapter=Crocus Spp. and Cvs.|page=388 |ref={{harvid|Bush-Brown et al|1996}} }}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/americasgardenbo00bush_0 here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Larson|editor-first=Roy A.|title=Introduction to Floriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYDNCgAAQBAJ|date=1992|origyear=1980|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-4832-6998-6|last=De Hertogh|first=August|chapter=Bulbous and tuberous plants|pages=197–223}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Larson|editor-first=Roy A.|title=Introduction to Floriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYDNCgAAQBAJ|date=1992|orig-date=1980|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-4832-6998-6|last=De Hertogh|first=August|chapter=Bulbous and tuberous plants|pages=197–223}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hill |first1=Lewis |last2=Hill |first2=Nancy|title=The Flower Gardener's Bible: A Complete Guide to Colorful Blooms All Season Long: 400 Favorite Flowers, Time-Tested Techniques, Creative Garden Designs, and a Lifetime of Gardening Wisdom|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_5KHXvqyOYC&pg=PA249|date=2012|origyear=2003|edition=10th Anniversary|publisher=[[Storey Publishing]]|location=North Adams, MA|isbn=978-1-60342-807-1|chapter=Crocus|page=249}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hill |first1=Lewis |last2=Hill |first2=Nancy|title=The Flower Gardener's Bible: A Complete Guide to Colorful Blooms All Season Long: 400 Favorite Flowers, Time-Tested Techniques, Creative Garden Designs, and a Lifetime of Gardening Wisdom|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_5KHXvqyOYC&pg=PA249|date=2012|orig-date=2003|edition=10th Anniversary|publisher=[[Storey Publishing]]|location=North Adams, MA|isbn=978-1-60342-807-1|chapter=Crocus|page=249}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |authorlink=Brian Mathew|title=Flowering Bulbs for the Garden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Sk8PQAACAAJ|date=1987 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]| isbn=978-0-600-35175-7  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |author-link=Brian Mathew|title=Flowering Bulbs for the Garden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Sk8PQAACAAJ|date=1987 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]| isbn=978-0-600-35175-7  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Roger |last2=Rix |first2=Martyn |authorlink2=Martyn Rix|title=The Random House Book of Bulbs |date=1989 |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-679-72756-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_7wAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Roger |last2=Rix |first2=Martyn |author-link2=Martyn Rix|title=The Random House Book of Bulbs |date=1989 |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-679-72756-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_7wAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Toogood|editor-first=Alan|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhfEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265|title=Propagating Plants: How to Create New Plants for Free|chapter=Crocus|page=265|date=2019|origyear=1999|publisher=[[DK (publisher)|Dorling Kindersley]] ([[Penguin Books|Penguin]])|isbn=978-1-4654-9898-4|edition=Revised}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Toogood|editor-first=Alan|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhfEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA265|title=Propagating Plants: How to Create New Plants for Free|chapter=Crocus|page=265|date=2019|orig-date=1999|publisher=[[DK (publisher)|Dorling Kindersley]] ([[Penguin Books|Penguin]])|isbn=978-1-4654-9898-4|edition=Revised}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Viette|first1=Andre|last2=Viette|first2=Mark|last3=Heriteau|first3=Jacqueline|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPf6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|title=Mid-Atlantic Getting Started Garden Guide: Grow the Best Flowers, Shrubs, Trees, Vines & Groundcovers|date=2015|edition=Revised|origyear=2003|publisher=[[Cool Springs Press]]|isbn=978-1-59186-435-6|chapter=Crocus|page=47|ref={{harvid|Viette et al|2015}}}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Viette|first1=Andre|last2=Viette|first2=Mark|last3=Heriteau|first3=Jacqueline|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPf6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|title=Mid-Atlantic Getting Started Garden Guide: Grow the Best Flowers, Shrubs, Trees, Vines & Groundcovers|date=2015|edition=Revised|orig-date=2003|publisher=[[Cool Springs Press]]|isbn=978-1-59186-435-6|chapter=Crocus|page=47|ref={{harvid|Viette et al|2015}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mathew|first1=Brian|authorlink=Brian Mathew|editor1-last=Cullen|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Knees|editor2-first=Sabina G.|editor3-last=Cubey|editor3-first=H. Suzanne Cubey|title=The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass|date=2011|origyear=1984|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-76147-5|pages=270–277|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC|volume= 1. Alismataceae to Orchidaceae|chapter=Crocus Linnaeus}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mathew|first1=Brian|author-link=Brian Mathew|editor1-last=Cullen|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Knees|editor2-first=Sabina G.|editor3-last=Cubey|editor3-first=H. Suzanne Cubey|title=The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass|date=2011|orig-date=1984|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-76147-5|pages=270–277|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC|volume= 1. Alismataceae to Orchidaceae|chapter=Crocus Linnaeus}}
* {{cite book |last1=Willes |first1=Margaret |title=The Making of the English Gardener: Plants, Books and Inspiration, 1560-1660 |date= 2011 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-16382-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAxLU3bo3kwC }}
* {{cite book |last1=Willes |first1=Margaret |title=The Making of the English Gardener: Plants, Books and Inspiration, 1560-1660 |date= 2011 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-16382-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAxLU3bo3kwC }}


Line 356: Line 362:


* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/ |chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/crocus|access-date=11 January 2022 |date=2022}}, (link note|note=''see also'' [[Online Etymology Dictionary]]
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/ |chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/crocus|access-date=11 January 2022 |date=2022}}, (link note|note=''see also'' [[Online Etymology Dictionary]]
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |others=Revised by [[Henry Stuart Jones]]|authorlink1=Henry Liddell|authorlink2=Robert Scott (philologist)|title=A Greek-English Lexicon 2 vols.|url=https://archive.org/details/b31364949_0001 |date=1996|edition=9th|publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-864226-8|access-date=10 January 2022}}, {{link note|note= ''see also'' [[A Greek–English Lexicon]]}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |others=Revised by [[Henry Stuart Jones]]|author-link1=Henry Liddell|author-link2=Robert Scott (philologist)|title=A Greek-English Lexicon 2 vols.|url=https://archive.org/details/b31364949_0001 |date=1996|edition=9th|publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-864226-8|access-date=10 January 2022}}, {{link note|note= ''see also'' [[A Greek–English Lexicon]]}}
** {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |last2=Scott |date=1996a|title=κρόκος , ὁ|volume=1|page=998|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkro%2Fkos}}
** {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |last2=Scott |date=1996a|title=κρόκος , ὁ|volume=1|page=998|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dkro%2Fkos}}
** {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |last2=Scott |date=1996b|title=ἀρωμα^τ|volume=1|page=254|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da)rwmati%2Fzw}}
** {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Liddell |last2=Scott |date=1996b|title=ἀρωμα^τ|volume=1|page=254|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da)rwmati%2Fzw}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Mabberley|first=D. J.|title=The Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVdoUPtqKCIC|date=1997|origyear=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-521-41421-0|chapter=Crocus|page=194}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Mabberley|first=D. J.|title=The Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVdoUPtqKCIC|date=1997|orig-date=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-521-41421-0|chapter=Crocus|page=194}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pankhurst|first1=Roger|last2=Hyam|first2=Richard|title=Plants and their names: a concise dictionary|date=1995|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-866189-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywIPQgAACAAJ}}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/plantstheirnames0000hyam here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}  
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pankhurst|first1=Roger|last2=Hyam|first2=Richard|title=Plants and their names: a concise dictionary|date=1995|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-866189-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywIPQgAACAAJ}}{{link note|note= Available [https://archive.org/details/plantstheirnames0000hyam here] at [[Internet Archive]]}}  
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Skelly |first1=Carole J. |title=Dictionary of Herbs, Spices, Seasonings, and Natural Flavorings |date=1994 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-51420-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOjGBQAAQBAJ|chapter=Pulsatilla|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oOjGBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT444}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Skelly |first1=Carole J. |title=Dictionary of Herbs, Spices, Seasonings, and Natural Flavorings |date=1994 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-51420-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOjGBQAAQBAJ|chapter=Pulsatilla|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oOjGBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT444}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Tenenbaum|editor1-first=Frances|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=557KJL0TC48C&pg=PA118|title=Taylor's Encyclopedia of Garden Plants|date=2003|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=978-0-618-22644-3|chapter=Crocus|pages=118–119}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Tenenbaum|editor1-first=Frances|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=557KJL0TC48C&pg=PA118|title=Taylor's Encyclopedia of Garden Plants|date=2003|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=978-0-618-22644-3|chapter=Crocus|pages=118–119}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wyman |first1=Donald |title=Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia |date=1986 |origyear=1971|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-02-632070-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSExQDJtQ7AC |edition=2nd.|chapter=Crocus|pages=272–274}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wyman |first1=Donald |title=Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia |date=1986 |orig-date=1971|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-02-632070-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSExQDJtQ7AC |edition=2nd.|chapter=Crocus|pages=272–274}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Crocus|website=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|date=20 September 2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-920687-2|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/crocus|accessdate=10 January 2022|ref={{harvid|OED|2022}}|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110231351/https://www.lexico.com/definition/crocus|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Crocus|website=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|date=20 September 2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-920687-2|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/crocus|access-date=10 January 2022|ref={{harvid|OED|2022}}|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110231351/https://www.lexico.com/definition/crocus}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=William|editor-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|last=Schmitz|first=Leonhard|authorlink=Leonhard Schmitz|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 2 vols.|volume=I: Abaeus-Dysponteus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoUOAAAAQAAJ|chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=P896|page=896|year=1850|publisher=Taylor and Walton|location=London}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=William|editor-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|last=Schmitz|first=Leonhard|author-link=Leonhard Schmitz|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 2 vols.|volume=I: Abaeus-Dysponteus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoUOAAAAQAAJ|chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=P896|page=896|year=1850|publisher=Taylor and Walton|location=London}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=William|editor-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LscPAAAAYAAJ|year=1859|edition=2nd.|publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]]|location=Boston}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=William|editor-link=William Smith (lexicographer)|title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LscPAAAAYAAJ|year=1859|edition=2nd.|publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]]|location=Boston}}


Line 373: Line 379:
* {{cite book|last1=Theophrastus|author-link=Theophrastus|editor1-last=Hort|editor1-first=Arthur|title=Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία: (Περὶ ὀσμῶν; ''De Odoribus'')|trans-title=Enquiry into Plants: Concerning odours|volume=II|pages=324–489|date=1916|orig-date=4th century BC|publisher=[[William Heinemann]] and [[G. P. Putnam's Sons|G.P. Putnam's Sons]] |series=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-674-99077-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/theophrastusiien00theo/page/350/mode/2up|chapter=6. Of the various parts of plants used for perfumes, and of the composition of various notable perfumes, section 27 }}{{link note|note=also available [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Theophrastus/De_odoribus*.html here] on Penelope}}
* {{cite book|last1=Theophrastus|author-link=Theophrastus|editor1-last=Hort|editor1-first=Arthur|title=Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία: (Περὶ ὀσμῶν; ''De Odoribus'')|trans-title=Enquiry into Plants: Concerning odours|volume=II|pages=324–489|date=1916|orig-date=4th century BC|publisher=[[William Heinemann]] and [[G. P. Putnam's Sons|G.P. Putnam's Sons]] |series=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-674-99077-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/theophrastusiien00theo/page/350/mode/2up|chapter=6. Of the various parts of plants used for perfumes, and of the composition of various notable perfumes, section 27 }}{{link note|note=also available [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Theophrastus/De_odoribus*.html here] on Penelope}}
;14th century  
;14th century  
* {{cite web |last1=BL |authorlink=British Library|title=Detailed record for Egerton 747 (ca. 1300–1330)|url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8319&CollID=28&NStart=747|website=Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts |access-date=20 January 2022 |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=BL |author-link=British Library|title=Detailed record for Egerton 747 (ca. 1300–1330)|url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8319&CollID=28&NStart=747|website=Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts |access-date=20 January 2022 |date=2022}}
;16th century
;16th century
* {{cite book |last1=Turner |first1=William |authorlink=William Turner (naturalist)|title=The Names of Herbes |date=1548|edition=1881 |publisher=[[English Dialect Society|English dialect society]] |location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYIrUD8lP90C |chapter=Crocus|page=31}}
* {{cite book |last1=Turner |first1=William |author-link=William Turner (naturalist)|title=The Names of Herbes |date=1548|edition=1881 |publisher=[[English Dialect Society|English dialect society]] |location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYIrUD8lP90C |chapter=Crocus|page=31}}
* {{cite book|last1=l'Obel|first1=Matthias de|authorlink=Matthias de l'Obel|title=Plantarum, seu, Stirpium historia. Cui annexum est aduersariorum volumen  |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7094#/summary|date=1576|publisher=[[Christophori Plantini]]|location=Antwerp|language=latin|chapter=Crocus|page=53|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/37879#page/737/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book|last1=l'Obel|first1=Matthias de|author-link=Matthias de l'Obel|title=Plantarum, seu, Stirpium historia. Cui annexum est aduersariorum volumen  |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7094#/summary|date=1576|publisher=[[Christophori Plantini]]|location=Antwerp|language=latin|chapter=Crocus|page=53|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/37879#page/737/mode/1up}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gerard |first1=John |author-link=John Gerard |title=The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes |date=1597 |edition=1st |publisher=John Norton |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749 |chapter=80. Of Saffron|pages =123–131|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749/page/122/mode/2up}} ([[Internet Archive]] version: also here at [[Botanicus]] and here at [[Biodiversity Heritage Library]])
* {{Cite book |last1=Gerard |first1=John |author-link=John Gerard |title=The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes |date=1597 |edition=1st |publisher=John Norton |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749 |chapter=80. Of Saffron|pages =123–131|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749/page/122/mode/2up}} ([[Internet Archive]] version: also here at [[Botanicus]] and here at [[Biodiversity Heritage Library]])
;17th century
;17th century
* {{cite book |last1=Besler |first1=Basilius |authorlink=Basilius Besler|title=Hortus Eystettensis, sive, Diligens et accurata omnium plantarum, florum, stirpium: ex variis orbis terrae partibus, singulari studio collectarum, quae in celeberrimis viridariis arcem episcopalem ibidem cingentibus, olim conspiciebantur delineatio et ad vivum repraesentatio et advivum repraesentatio opera|date=1640 |origyear=1613|location=Nürnberg|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/45339#/summary|language=latin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Besler |first1=Basilius |author-link=Basilius Besler|title=Hortus Eystettensis, sive, Diligens et accurata omnium plantarum, florum, stirpium: ex variis orbis terrae partibus, singulari studio collectarum, quae in celeberrimis viridariis arcem episcopalem ibidem cingentibus, olim conspiciebantur delineatio et ad vivum repraesentatio et advivum repraesentatio opera|date=1640 |orig-date=1613|location=Nürnberg|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/45339#/summary|language=latin}}
* {{cite book|last=Parkinson|first=John|authorlink=John Parkinson (botanist)|title=Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, or, A Choise Garden of All Sorts of Rarest Flowers with their Nature, Place of Birth, Time of Flowering, Names, and Vertues to Each Plant, Useful in Physic or Admired for Beauty: To which is Annext a Kitchin-Garden Furnished with All Manner of Herbs, Roots, and Fruits, for Meat or Sauce Used with Us, with the Art of Planting an Orchard... All Unmentioned in Former Herbals|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/69836|location=London|publisher=Printed by R.N. and are to be sold by Richard Thrale at his shop at the signe of the Cross-Keys at S. Pauls-gate, going into Cheap-side|year=1656|chapter=Crocus saffron|pages=160–170}}
* {{cite book|last=Parkinson|first=John|author-link=John Parkinson (botanist)|title=Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, or, A Choise Garden of All Sorts of Rarest Flowers with their Nature, Place of Birth, Time of Flowering, Names, and Vertues to Each Plant, Useful in Physic or Admired for Beauty: To which is Annext a Kitchin-Garden Furnished with All Manner of Herbs, Roots, and Fruits, for Meat or Sauce Used with Us, with the Art of Planting an Orchard... All Unmentioned in Former Herbals|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/69836|location=London|publisher=Printed by R.N. and are to be sold by Richard Thrale at his shop at the signe of the Cross-Keys at S. Pauls-gate, going into Cheap-side|year=1656|chapter=Crocus saffron|pages=160–170}}
;18th century
;18th century
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |authorlink=Linnaeus|title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|year=1753|volume=1|chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/48/mode/1up|page=36|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm}}, ''see also'' [[Species Plantarum]]
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Linnaeus|title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|year=1753|volume=1|chapter=Crocus|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/48/mode/1up|page=36|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm}}, ''see also'' [[Species Plantarum]]
* {{cite book |last1=Maratti |first1=Giovanni Francesco |authorlink=:es:Giovanni Francesco Maratti|title=Plantarum Romuleae, et Saturniae in agro Romano existentium: specificas notas describit inventor |date=1772 |publisher=Typis Archangeli Casaletti |location=Rome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ik0aAAAAYAAJ |language=la}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maratti |first1=Giovanni Francesco |author-link=:es:Giovanni Francesco Maratti|title=Plantarum Romuleae, et Saturniae in agro Romano existentium: specificas notas describit inventor |date=1772 |publisher=Typis Archangeli Casaletti |location=Rome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ik0aAAAAYAAJ |language=la}}
* {{cite book |last=Jussieu |first=Antoine Laurent de |authorlink=Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|title=Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in Horto regio parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV |location=Paris |year=1789 |oclc=5161409 |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125|language=la|chapter=Crocus|page=59|chapter-url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/154/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book |last=Jussieu |first=Antoine Laurent de |author-link=Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|title=Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in Horto regio parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV |location=Paris |year=1789 |oclc=5161409 |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125|language=la|chapter=Crocus|page=59|chapter-url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/154/mode/1up}}
;19th century
;19th century
* {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|author-link=John Lindley|title=The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system|publisher=Bradbury & Evans|location=London|date=1853|orig-year=1846|edition=3rd.|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/95459#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|author-link=John Lindley|title=The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system|publisher=Bradbury & Evans|location=London|date=1853|orig-date=1846|edition=3rd.|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/95459#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bentham|first1=G.|last2=Hooker|first2=J.D.|authorlink1=George Bentham|authorlink2=Joseph Dalton Hooker|title=Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita|volume=III Part II|year=1883|publisher=L Reeve & Co.|location=London|page=693|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/254/mode/1up|chapter=Crocus}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bentham|first1=G.|last2=Hooker|first2=J.D.|author-link1=George Bentham|author-link2=Joseph Dalton Hooker|title=Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita|volume=III Part II|year=1883|publisher=L Reeve & Co.|location=London|page=693|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/254/mode/1up|chapter=Crocus}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |authorlink=Maw & Co|title=A monograph of the genus Crocus. With an appendix on the etymology of the words crocus and saffron by C.C. Lacaita |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co.|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/15481}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |author-link=Maw & Co|title=A monograph of the genus Crocus. With an appendix on the etymology of the words crocus and saffron by C.C. Lacaita |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co.|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/15481}}
** {{cite journal |last1=Nature |title=The Crocus |journal=Nature |date=February 1887 |volume=35 |issue=902 |pages=348–349 |type=Review|doi=10.1038/035348a0|bibcode=1887Natur..35..348. |s2cid=4091523 |doi-access=free }}
** {{cite journal |last1=Nature |title=The Crocus |journal=Nature |date=February 1887 |volume=35 |issue=902 |pages=348–349 |type=Review|doi=10.1038/035348a0|bibcode=1887Natur..35..348. |s2cid=4091523 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Masclef |first1=Amédée |authorlink=Amédée Masclef|title=Atlas des plantes de France 3 vols |date=1890–1893|volume=3|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/146304|pages=328}}
* {{cite book |last1=Masclef |first1=Amédée |author-link=Amédée Masclef|title=Atlas des plantes de France 3 vols |date=1890–1893|volume=3|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/146304|page=328}}


=== Chapters ===
=== Chapters ===


* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=De Hertogh|first1=August A|last2=van Scheepen|first2=Johan|last3=Le Nard|first3=Marcel|last4=Okubo|first4=Hiroshi|last5=Kamenetsky|first5=Rina|title=Globalization of the flower bulb industry |pages=1–16 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439849248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA1|ref={{harvid|De Hertogh et al|2012}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=De Hertogh|first1=August A|last2=van Scheepen|first2=Johan|last3=Le Nard|first3=Marcel|last4=Okubo|first4=Hiroshi|last5=Kamenetsky|first5=Rina|title=Globalization of the flower bulb industry |pages=1–16 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA1|ref={{harvid|De Hertogh et al|2012}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=Meerow|first1=Alan W|authorlink=Alan Meerow|title=Taxonomy and phylogeny |pages=17–56 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439849248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA17}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=Meerow|first1=Alan W|author-link=Alan Meerow|title=Taxonomy and phylogeny |pages=17–56 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA17}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=Okubo|first1=Hiroshi|last2=Sochacki|first2=Dariusz|title=Botanical and horticultural aspects of major ornamental geophytes: II Crocus |pages=79–82 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439849248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA79}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}
* {{cite book|year=2012 |last1=Okubo|first1=Hiroshi|last2=Sochacki|first2=Dariusz|title=Botanical and horticultural aspects of major ornamental geophytes: II Crocus |pages=79–82 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA79}}, in {{harvtxt|Kamenetsky|Okubo|2012}}


=== Articles ===
=== Articles ===
Line 404: Line 410:
* {{cite journal |last=Challenger|first=Charlie|title= The Pleasures of Crocus |url=https://www.rnzih.org.nz/pages/crocus.htm|journal=The New Zealand Garden Journal (Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture)|volume=1|issue=1|pages=12–17|date=March 1986}}
* {{cite journal |last=Challenger|first=Charlie|title= The Pleasures of Crocus |url=https://www.rnzih.org.nz/pages/crocus.htm|journal=The New Zealand Garden Journal (Journal of the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture)|volume=1|issue=1|pages=12–17|date=March 1986}}
* {{cite journal| last1=Davies|first1= Kevin L.|title=The life and work of Sydenham Edwards FLS, Welshman, Botanical and Animal Draughtsman 1768-1819| url=https://journals.library.wales/view/1225327/1225824/35#?xywh=-1752%2C-197%2C5933%2C3913|journal=[[Swansea History Journal|Minerva - The Journal of Swansea History]]|volume=9 |pages=30–58|year= 2001}}
* {{cite journal| last1=Davies|first1= Kevin L.|title=The life and work of Sydenham Edwards FLS, Welshman, Botanical and Animal Draughtsman 1768-1819| url=https://journals.library.wales/view/1225327/1225824/35#?xywh=-1752%2C-197%2C5933%2C3913|journal=[[Swansea History Journal|Minerva - The Journal of Swansea History]]|volume=9 |pages=30–58|year= 2001}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=Jo |title=Crocuses in context: A Diachronic Survey of the Crocus Motif in the Aegean Bronze Age |journal=[[Hesperia (journal)|Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens]] |date=2011 |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=337 |doi=10.2972/hesperia.80.3.0337|s2cid=165105395 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=Jo |title=Crocuses in context: A Diachronic Survey of the Crocus Motif in the Aegean Bronze Age |journal=[[Hesperia (journal)|Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens]] |date=2011 |volume=80 |issue=3 |page=337 |doi=10.2972/hesperia.80.3.0337|s2cid=165105395 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dewan |first1=Rachel |title=Bronze Age Flower Power: The Minoan Use and Social Significance of Saffron and Crocus Flowers |journal=Chronika |date=2015 |volume=5 |pages=42–55 |url=http://www.chronikajournal.com/resources/Dewan%202015.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dewan |first1=Rachel |title=Bronze Age Flower Power: The Minoan Use and Social Significance of Saffron and Crocus Flowers |journal=Chronika |date=2015 |volume=5 |pages=42–55 |url=http://www.chronikajournal.com/resources/Dewan%202015.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Richard G. |last2=Larson |first2=Erica L. |title=Hybridization, Introgression, and the Nature of Species Boundaries |journal=[[Journal of Heredity]] |date=1 December 2014 |volume=105 |issue=S1 |pages=795–809 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esu033|pmid=25149255 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Richard G. |last2=Larson |first2=Erica L. |title=Hybridization, Introgression, and the Nature of Species Boundaries |journal=[[Journal of Heredity]] |date=1 December 2014 |volume=105 |issue=S1 |pages=795–809 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esu033|pmid=25149255 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=John H. |title=Turkey as a Source of Garden Plants |journal=Garden History |date=1976 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.2307/1586521 |jstor=1586521 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1586521 |issn=0307-1243|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=John H. |title=Turkey as a Source of Garden Plants |journal=Garden History |date=1976 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.2307/1586521 |jstor=1586521 |issn=0307-1243}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Janick |first1=Jules |last2=Daunay |first2=Marie Christine |last3=Paris |first3=Harry |title=Horticulture and Health in the Middle Ages: Images from the Tacuinum Sanitatis |journal=[[HortScience]] |date=November 2010 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=1592–1596 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.45.11.1592|s2cid=86510163 |ref={{harvid|Janick et al|2010}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Janick |first1=Jules |last2=Daunay |first2=Marie Christine |last3=Paris |first3=Harry |title=Horticulture and Health in the Middle Ages: Images from the Tacuinum Sanitatis |journal=[[HortScience]] |date=November 2010 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=1592–1596 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.45.11.1592|s2cid=86510163 |ref={{harvid|Janick et al|2010}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kandeler |first1=R. |last2=Ullrich |first2=W. R. |title=Symbolism of plants: examples of European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JANUARY: Crocus |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |date=25 November 2008 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=6–8 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ern360|pmid=19213723 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kandeler |first1=R. |last2=Ullrich |first2=W. R. |title=Symbolism of plants: examples of European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JANUARY: Crocus |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |date=25 November 2008 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=6–8 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ern360|pmid=19213723 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |authorlink1=Brian Mathew|title=George Maw and his monograph |journal=[[The Kew Magazine]] |date=1986 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=186–189 |jstor=45066517 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |author-link1=Brian Mathew|title=George Maw and his monograph |journal=[[The Kew Magazine]] |date=1986 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=186–189 |jstor=45066517 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mohtashami |first1=Leila |last2=Amiri |first2=Mohammad Sadegh |last3=Ramezani |first3=Mahin |last4=Emami |first4=Seyed Ahmad |last5=Simal-Gandara |first5=Jesus |title=The genus Crocus L.: A review of ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology |journal=Industrial Crops and Products |date=November 2021 |volume=171 |page=113923 |doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113923|ref={{harvid|Mohtashami et al|2021}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mohtashami |first1=Leila |last2=Amiri |first2=Mohammad Sadegh |last3=Ramezani |first3=Mahin |last4=Emami |first4=Seyed Ahmad |last5=Simal-Gandara |first5=Jesus |title=The genus Crocus L.: A review of ethnobotanical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology |journal=Industrial Crops and Products |date=November 2021 |volume=171 |article-number=113923 |doi=10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113923|ref={{harvid|Mohtashami et al|2021}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Negbi |first1=Moshe |title=Theophrastus on geophytes |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |date=May 1989 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=15–43 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01708.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Negbi |first1=Moshe |title=Theophrastus on geophytes |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |date=May 1989 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=15–43 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01708.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pastor-Férriz |first1=Teresa |last2=De-los-Mozos-Pascual |first2=Marcelino |last3=Renau-Morata |first3=Begoña |last4=Nebauer |first4=Sergio G. |last5=Sanchis |first5=Enrique |last6=Busconi |first6=Matteo |last7=Fernández |first7=José-Antonio |last8=Kamenetsky |first8=Rina |last9=Molina |first9=Rosa V. |title=Ongoing Evolution in the Genus Crocus: Diversity of Flowering Strategies on the Way to Hysteranthy |journal=Plants |date=3 March 2021 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=477 |doi=10.3390/plants10030477|pmid=33802494 |pmc=7999489 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pastor-Férriz |first1=Teresa |last2=De-los-Mozos-Pascual |first2=Marcelino |last3=Renau-Morata |first3=Begoña |last4=Nebauer |first4=Sergio G. |last5=Sanchis |first5=Enrique |last6=Busconi |first6=Matteo |last7=Fernández |first7=José-Antonio |last8=Kamenetsky |first8=Rina |last9=Molina |first9=Rosa V. |title=Ongoing Evolution in the Genus Crocus: Diversity of Flowering Strategies on the Way to Hysteranthy |journal=Plants |date=3 March 2021 |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=477 |doi=10.3390/plants10030477|pmid=33802494 |pmc=7999489 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rix |first1=Alison |title=George Maw, Joseph Hooker and the genus Crocus |journal=[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] |date=May 2008 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=176–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8748.2008.00616.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rix |first1=Alison |title=George Maw, Joseph Hooker and the genus Crocus |journal=[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] |date=May 2008 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=176–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8748.2008.00616.x}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |authorlink1=Paula Rudall|authorlink2=Brian Mathew|title=Leaf Anatomy in Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Kew Bulletin]] |date=1990 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=535–544 |doi=10.2307/4110516|jstor=4110516 |bibcode=1990KewBu..45..535R }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |author-link1=Paula Rudall|author-link2=Brian Mathew|title=Leaf Anatomy in Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Kew Bulletin]] |date=1990 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=535–544 |doi=10.2307/4110516|jstor=4110516 |bibcode=1990KewBu..45..535R }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sharifi |first1=G. |title=Etymology, history and application of saffron (Crocus sativus l.) in ancient Iran |journal=[[Acta Horticulturae]] |date=January 2010 |issue=850 |pages=309–314 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.850.53}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sharifi |first1=G. |title=Etymology, history and application of saffron (Crocus sativus l.) in ancient Iran |journal=[[Acta Horticulturae]] |date=January 2010 |issue=850 |pages=309–314 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.850.53}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Trakoli |first1=Anna |title=Minoan Art, The 'Saffron Gatherers', c1650 BC |journal=[[Occupational Medicine (Oxford University Press journal)|Occupational Medicine]] |date=16 June 2021 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=124–126 |doi=10.1093/occmed/kqab019|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Trakoli |first1=Anna |title=Minoan Art, The 'Saffron Gatherers', c1650 BC |journal=[[Occupational Medicine (Oxford University Press journal)|Occupational Medicine]] |date=16 June 2021 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=124–126 |doi=10.1093/occmed/kqab019|doi-access=free }}
Line 425: Line 431:
* {{cite journal |last1=Aghighiravan |first1=Fatemeh |last2=Shokrpour |first2=Majid |last3=Nazeri |first3=Vahideh |last4=Naghavi |first4=Mohammad Reza |title=Phylogenetic Assessment of Some Species of Crocus Genus Using DNA Barcoding |journal=Journal of Genetic Resources|date=July 2019 |volume=5 |issue=2 |doi=10.22080/jgr.2019.2408}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Aghighiravan |first1=Fatemeh |last2=Shokrpour |first2=Majid |last3=Nazeri |first3=Vahideh |last4=Naghavi |first4=Mohammad Reza |title=Phylogenetic Assessment of Some Species of Crocus Genus Using DNA Barcoding |journal=Journal of Genetic Resources|date=July 2019 |volume=5 |issue=2 |doi=10.22080/jgr.2019.2408}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Çiftçi |first1=Almila |last2=Harpke |first2=Doerte |last3=Mollman |first3=Rachel |last4=Yildirim |first4=Hasan |last5=Erol |first5=Osman |title=Notes on Crocus L. Series Flavi Mathew (Iridaceae) and a new species with unique corm structure|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340455322|journal=[[Phytotaxa]] |date=6 April 2020 |volume=438 |issue=2 |pages=65–79 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.438.2.1|s2cid=216439891 |ref={{harvid|Ciftci et al|2020}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Çiftçi |first1=Almila |last2=Harpke |first2=Doerte |last3=Mollman |first3=Rachel |last4=Yildirim |first4=Hasan |last5=Erol |first5=Osman |title=Notes on Crocus L. Series Flavi Mathew (Iridaceae) and a new species with unique corm structure|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340455322|journal=[[Phytotaxa]] |date=6 April 2020 |volume=438 |issue=2 |pages=65–79 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.438.2.1|s2cid=216439891 |ref={{harvid|Ciftci et al|2020}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=Peter |authorlink=Peter Goldblatt|title=Phylogeny and classification of Iridaceae|journal=[[Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden]] |date=1990 |volume=77 |issue=4|pages=607–627 |doi=10.2307/2399667 |jstor=2399667 |url=http://www.botanicus.org/page/1459055}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=Peter |author-link=Peter Goldblatt|title=Phylogeny and classification of Iridaceae|journal=[[Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden]] |date=1990 |volume=77 |issue=4|pages=607–627 |doi=10.2307/2399667 |jstor=2399667 |url=http://www.botanicus.org/page/1459055}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=P. |authorlink=Peter Goldblatt|title=Phylogeny and Classificationof the Iridaceae and the Relationships of Iris |journal=Annali di Botanica |date=2000 |volume=58 |pages=13–28  |url=https://rosa.uniroma1.it/rosa04/annali_di_botanica/article/view/9059 |issn=2239-3129}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=P. |author-link=Peter Goldblatt|title=Phylogeny and Classificationof the Iridaceae and the Relationships of Iris |journal=Annali di Botanica |date=2000 |volume=58 |pages=13–28  |url=https://rosa.uniroma1.it/rosa04/annali_di_botanica/article/view/9059 |issn=2239-3129}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=Peter |last2=Davies |first2=Jonathan |last3=Manning |first3=John |last4=van der Bank |first4=Michelle |last5=Savolainen |first5=Vincent |authorlink1=Peter Goldblatt|authorlink3=John Charles Manning|title=Phylogeny of Iridaceae Subfamily Crocoideae Based on a Combined Multigene Plastid DNA Analysis |journal=Aliso |date=2006 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=399–411 |doi=10.5642/aliso.20062201.32|ref={{harvid|Goldblatt et al|2006}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=Peter |last2=Davies |first2=Jonathan |last3=Manning |first3=John |last4=van der Bank |first4=Michelle |last5=Savolainen |first5=Vincent |author-link1=Peter Goldblatt|author-link3=John Charles Manning|title=Phylogeny of Iridaceae Subfamily Crocoideae Based on a Combined Multigene Plastid DNA Analysis |journal=Aliso |date=2006 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=399–411 |doi=10.5642/aliso.20062201.32|ref={{harvid|Goldblatt et al|2006}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=P. |last2=Manning |first2=J. C. |title=Systematics of the southern African genus Ixia (Iridaceae). 3. Sections Hyalis and Morphixia |journal=[[African Biodiversity & Conservation|Bothalia]]|date=13 December 2011 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=83–134 |doi=10.4102/abc.v41i1.35|s2cid=84534897 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goldblatt |first1=P. |last2=Manning |first2=J. C. |title=Systematics of the southern African genus Ixia (Iridaceae). 3. Sections Hyalis and Morphixia |journal=[[African Biodiversity & Conservation|Bothalia]]|date=13 December 2011 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=83–134 |doi=10.4102/abc.v41i1.35|s2cid=84534897 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Meng |first2=Shuchun |last3=Rutten |first3=Twan |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Phylogeny of Crocus (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=March 2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=617–627 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733 |bibcode=2013MolPE..66..617H |ref={{harvid|Harpke et al| 2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Meng |first2=Shuchun |last3=Rutten |first3=Twan |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Phylogeny of Crocus (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=March 2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=617–627 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733 |bibcode=2013MolPE..66..617H |ref={{harvid|Harpke et al| 2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Peruzzi |first2=Lorenzo |last3=Kerndorff |first3=Helmut |last4=Karamplianis |first4=Theophanis |last5=Constantinidis |first5=Theophanis |last6=Ranđelović |first6=Vladimir |last7=Ranđelović |first7=Novica |last8=Jušković |first8=Marina |last9=Pasche |first9=Erich |last10=Blattner |first10=Frank R. |title=Phylogeny, geographic distribution, and new taxonomic circumscription of the Crocus reticulatus species group (Iridaceae) |journal=Turkish Journal of Botany |date=2014 |volume=38 |pages=1182–1198 |doi=10.3906/bot-1405-60|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2014}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Peruzzi |first2=Lorenzo |last3=Kerndorff |first3=Helmut |last4=Karamplianis |first4=Theophanis |last5=Constantinidis |first5=Theophanis |last6=Ranđelović |first6=Vladimir |last7=Ranđelović |first7=Novica |last8=Jušković |first8=Marina |last9=Pasche |first9=Erich |last10=Blattner |first10=Frank R. |title=Phylogeny, geographic distribution, and new taxonomic circumscription of the Crocus reticulatus species group (Iridaceae) |journal=Turkish Journal of Botany |date=2014 |volume=38 |pages=1182–1198 |doi=10.3906/bot-1405-60|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2014}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |last3=Tomović |first3=Gordana |last4=Ranđelović |first4=Vladimir |last5=Ranđelović |first5=Novica |last6=Blattner |first6=Frank R. |last7=Peruzzi |first7=Lorenzo |title=Phylogeny, karyotype evolution and taxonomy of Crocus series Verni (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Plant Systematics and Evolution]] |date=January 2015 |volume=301 |issue=1 |pages=309–325 |doi=10.1007/s00606-014-1074-0|bibcode=2015PSyEv.301..309H |s2cid=18507508 |ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2015}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harpke |first1=Dörte |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |last3=Tomović |first3=Gordana |last4=Ranđelović |first4=Vladimir |last5=Ranđelović |first5=Novica |last6=Blattner |first6=Frank R. |last7=Peruzzi |first7=Lorenzo |title=Phylogeny, karyotype evolution and taxonomy of Crocus series Verni (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Plant Systematics and Evolution]] |date=January 2015 |volume=301 |issue=1 |pages=309–325 |doi=10.1007/s00606-014-1074-0|bibcode=2015PSyEv.301..309H |s2cid=18507508 |ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2015}}}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Kerndorff|first2=Helmut|last3=Pasche|first3=Erich|last4=Peruzzi|first4=Lorenzi|date=11 May 2016|title=Neotypification of the name Crocus biflorus Mill. (Iridaceae) and its consequences in the taxonomy of the genus|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.260.2.3|journal=[[Phytotaxa]]|volume=260|issue=2|pages=131–143|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.260.2.3|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2016}}|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Kerndorff|first2=Helmut|last3=Pasche|first3=Erich|last4=Peruzzi|first4=Lorenzi|date=11 May 2016|title=Neotypification of the name Crocus biflorus Mill. (Iridaceae) and its consequences in the taxonomy of the genus|journal=[[Phytotaxa]]|volume=260|issue=2|pages=131–143|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.260.2.3|ref={{harvid|Harpke et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=Crocus isauricus Siehe ex BowleS (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives |date=2014 |journal=Stapfia|volume=101 |pages=3–18 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0101_0003-0018.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2014}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=Crocus isauricus Siehe ex BowleS (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives |date=2014 |journal=Stapfia|volume=101 |pages=3–18 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0101_0003-0018.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2014}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Lifecycle, Morphology, Phenotypic Characteristics, and Taxonomical Relevant Parameters |date=2015 |journal=Stapfia|volume=103 |pages=27–65 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0103_0027-0065.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2015}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Lifecycle, Morphology, Phenotypic Characteristics, and Taxonomical Relevant Parameters |date=2015 |journal=Stapfia|volume=103 |pages=27–65 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0103_0027-0065.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2015}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=Crocus lyciotauricus Kerndorff & Pasche (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives |date=2015a |journal=Stapfia|volume=103 |pages=67–80 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0103_0067-0080.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2015a}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff |first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=Crocus lyciotauricus Kerndorff & Pasche (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae) and its relatives |date=2015a |journal=Stapfia|volume=103 |pages=67–80 |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_0103_0067-0080.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2015a}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff|first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Taxonomical Problems and How to Determine a Species Nowadays? |date=2016 |journal=Stapfia|volume=105 |pages=42–5o |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_105_0042-0050.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kerndorff|first1=Helmut |last2=Pasche |first2=Erich |last3=Harpke |first3=Dörte |title=The Genus Crocus (Liliiflorae, Iridaceae): Taxonomical Problems and How to Determine a Species Nowadays? |date=2016 |journal=Stapfia|volume=105 |pages=42–5o |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/STAPFIA_105_0042-0050.pdf|ref={{harvid|Kerndorff et al|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |last2=Petersen |first2=Gitte |last3=Seberg |first3=Ole |authorlink1=Brian Mathew|title=A reassessment of ''Crocus'' based on molecular analysis |journal=The Plantsman |series=New Series|date=2009 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=50–57|ref={{harvid|Mathew et al|2009}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mathew |first1=Brian |last2=Petersen |first2=Gitte |last3=Seberg |first3=Ole |author-link1=Brian Mathew|title=A reassessment of ''Crocus'' based on molecular analysis |journal=The Plantsman |series=New Series|date=2009 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=50–57|ref={{harvid|Mathew et al|2009}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Blattner |first2=Frank R. |last3=Kerndorff |first3=Helmut |last4=Erol |first4=Osman |last5=Harpke |first5=Dörte |title=Phylogeny of the saffron-crocus species group, Crocus series Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=October 2018 |volume=127 |pages=891–897 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.036|pmid=29936028 |bibcode=2018MolPE.127..891N |s2cid=49409790 |ref={{harvid|Nemati et al|2018}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Blattner |first2=Frank R. |last3=Kerndorff |first3=Helmut |last4=Erol |first4=Osman |last5=Harpke |first5=Dörte |title=Phylogeny of the saffron-crocus species group, Crocus series Crocus (Iridaceae) |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=October 2018 |volume=127 |pages=891–897 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.036|pmid=29936028 |bibcode=2018MolPE.127..891N |s2cid=49409790 |ref={{harvid|Nemati et al|2018}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peruzzi |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |last3=Garbari |first3=Fabio |title=Lectotypification of the name Crocus sativus var. vernus L. (Iridaceae) and its consequences within Crocus ser. Verni |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=22 October 2013 |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=1037–1040 |doi=10.12705/625.7|ref={{harvid|Peruzzi et al|2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peruzzi |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Carta |first2=Angelino |last3=Garbari |first3=Fabio |title=Lectotypification of the name Crocus sativus var. vernus L. (Iridaceae) and its consequences within Crocus ser. Verni |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=22 October 2013 |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=1037–1040 |doi=10.12705/625.7|ref={{harvid|Peruzzi et al|2013}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Petersen |first1=Gitte |last2=Seberg |first2=Ole |last3=Thorsøe |first3=Sarah |last4=Jørgensen |first4=Tina |last5=Mathew |first5=Brian |authorlink5=Brian Mathew|title=A Phylogeny of the Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) Based on Sequence Data from Five Plastid Regions |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=2008 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=487–499 |doi=10.2307/25066017 |jstor=25066017 |ref={{harvid|Petersen et al|2008}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Petersen |first1=Gitte |last2=Seberg |first2=Ole |last3=Thorsøe |first3=Sarah |last4=Jørgensen |first4=Tina |last5=Mathew |first5=Brian |author-link5=Brian Mathew|title=A Phylogeny of the Genus Crocus (Iridaceae) Based on Sequence Data from Five Plastid Regions |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=2008 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=487–499 |doi=10.2307/25066017 |jstor=25066017 |ref={{harvid|Petersen et al|2008}}|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Roma-Marzio |first1=Francesco |last2=Harpke |first2=Doerte |last3=Peruzzi |first3=Lorenzo |title=Rediscovery of Crocus biflorus var. estriatus (Iridaceae) and its taxonomic characterisation |journal=[[Italian Botanist]] |date=9 May 2018 |volume=6 |pages=23–30 |doi=10.3897/italianbotanist.6.28729|s2cid=91370762 |ref={{harvid|Roma-Marzio et al|2018}} |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Roma-Marzio |first1=Francesco |last2=Harpke |first2=Doerte |last3=Peruzzi |first3=Lorenzo |title=Rediscovery of Crocus biflorus var. estriatus (Iridaceae) and its taxonomic characterisation |journal=[[Italian Botanist]] |date=9 May 2018 |volume=6 |pages=23–30 |doi=10.3897/italianbotanist.6.28729|s2cid=91370762 |ref={{harvid|Roma-Marzio et al|2018}} |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Serviss|first1=Brett E.|last2=Peck|first2=James H.|last3=Benjamin|first3=Kristen R.|date=2016|title=Crocus flavus: a new genus and species of non-native Iridaceae for the Arkansas (U.S.A.) flora|jstor=44858594|journal=[[Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=513–516|ref={{harvid|Serviss et al|2016}}}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Serviss|first1=Brett E.|last2=Peck|first2=James H.|last3=Benjamin|first3=Kristen R.|date=2016|title=Crocus flavus: a new genus and species of non-native Iridaceae for the Arkansas (U.S.A.) flora|jstor=44858594|journal=[[Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=513–516|ref={{harvid|Serviss et al|2016}}}}
Line 462: Line 468:


* {{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=John Gilbert|author-link=John Gilbert Baker |title=A Classified Synonymic List of all the Known Crocuses, with their Native Countries, and References to the Works where they are Figured|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society of London]]|date=1874 |volume=4 |issue=14|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/152500#page/129/mode/1up|pages=111–119 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=John Gilbert|author-link=John Gilbert Baker |title=A Classified Synonymic List of all the Known Crocuses, with their Native Countries, and References to the Works where they are Figured|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society of London]]|date=1874 |volume=4 |issue=14|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/152500#page/129/mode/1up|pages=111–119 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Curtis|first1=William |authorlink=William Curtis|title=Crocus vernus|journal=[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] |date=1787 |volume=2|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7351#page/102/mode/1up|page=T45 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Curtis|first1=William |author-link=William Curtis|title=Crocus vernus|journal=[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] |date=1787 |volume=2|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7351#page/102/mode/1up|page=T45 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haworth |first1=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Haworth|title=On the Cultivation of Crocuses, with a short Account of the different Species known at present. February 7, 1809 |journal=[[Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London]]|date=1820 |volume=1 |pages=122–139 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/151339#page/145/mode/1up |publisher=M. Bulmer & Co.}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haworth |first1=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Haworth|title=On the Cultivation of Crocuses, with a short Account of the different Species known at present. February 7, 1809 |journal=[[Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London]]|date=1820 |volume=1 |pages=122–139 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/151339#page/145/mode/1up |publisher=M. Bulmer & Co.}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=William |author-link=William Herbert (botanist)|title=A History of the Species of Crocus |journal=[[The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London]] |date=1847 |volume=2 |pages=249–293 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/43585461#page/267/mode/1up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=William |author-link=William Herbert (botanist)|title=A History of the Species of Crocus |journal=[[The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London]] |date=1847 |volume=2 |pages=249–293 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/43585461#page/267/mode/1up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sabine|first1=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Sabine|title=An Account and Description of the Species and most remarkable Varieties of Spring Crocuses, cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society. January 6, 1829 |journal=[[Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London]]|date=1830 |volume=7 |pages=III: 419–432; IV: 433–498|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/155840#page/482/mode/1up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sabine|first1=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Sabine|title=An Account and Description of the Species and most remarkable Varieties of Spring Crocuses, cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society. January 6, 1829 |journal=[[Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London]]|date=1830 |volume=7 |pages=III: 419–432; IV: 433–498|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/155840#page/482/mode/1up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sims|first1=John |authorlink=John Sims (taxonomist)|title=Crocus susianus. Cloth of Gold Crocus|journal=[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] |date=1803 |volume=18|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14296#page/139/mode/1up|page=T652 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sims|first1=John |author-link=John Sims (taxonomist)|title=Crocus susianus. Cloth of Gold Crocus|journal=[[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] |date=1803 |volume=18|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14296#page/139/mode/1up|page=T652 }}


=== Websites ===
=== Websites ===
Line 477: Line 483:
* {{cite web |last1=Sözen |first1=İbrahim |title=The Country Of Crocuses |url=http://crocusmania.blogspot.com/ |website=Crocusmania |access-date=23 January 2022 |language=tr |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Sözen |first1=İbrahim |title=The Country Of Crocuses |url=http://crocusmania.blogspot.com/ |website=Crocusmania |access-date=23 January 2022 |language=tr |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Boland |first1=Todd |title=Crocus to Brighten the Spring Garden |url=https://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/977/ |website=[[Dave's Garden]] |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=20 September 2008}}
* {{cite web |last1=Boland |first1=Todd |title=Crocus to Brighten the Spring Garden |url=https://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/977/ |website=[[Dave's Garden]] |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=20 September 2008}}
* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |authorlink=NCBI|title=CID 5281233, Crocin |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Crocin |website=[[PubChem]] |publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine|National Library of Medicine]] |location=Bethesda MD|date=2022a|access-date=24 January 2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |author-link=NCBI|title=CID 5281233, Crocin |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Crocin |website=[[PubChem]] |publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine|National Library of Medicine]] |location=Bethesda MD|date=2022a|access-date=24 January 2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |authorlink=NCBI|title=CID 5281232, Crocetin |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Crocetin |website=[[PubChem]] |publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine|National Library of Medicine]] |location=Bethesda MD|date=2022b|access-date=24 January 2022 }}
* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |author-link=NCBI|title=CID 5281232, Crocetin |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Crocetin |website=[[PubChem]] |publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine|National Library of Medicine]] |location=Bethesda MD|date=2022b|access-date=24 January 2022 }}
* {{anchor|Distribution}}{{cite journal |title=Distribution area of the genus Crocus subdivided into five different geographic regions (A-E) |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=March 2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages= 617–627: Supplementary material|type=Map }}
* {{anchor|Distribution}}{{cite journal |title=Distribution area of the genus Crocus subdivided into five different geographic regions (A-E) |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=March 2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages= 617–627: Supplementary material|type=Map }}


=== Organisations and collections ===
=== Organisations and collections ===


* {{cite web|last=IBS|authorlink=International Bulb Society|title=Crocus|url=http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WORLDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Crocus/Crocuslist.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903060316/http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WORLDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Crocus/Crocuslist.shtml|archive-date=3 September 2013|publisher=[[International Bulb Society]]|access-date=15 January 2022}}
* {{cite web|last=IBS|author-link=International Bulb Society|title=Crocus|url=http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WORLDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Crocus/Crocuslist.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903060316/http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WORLDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Crocus/Crocuslist.shtml|archive-date=3 September 2013|publisher=[[International Bulb Society]]|access-date=15 January 2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=PBS |authorlink=Pacific Bulb Society|title=Crocus |url=https://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Crocus |website=Photographs and Information |access-date=21 January 2022 |date=5 March 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=PBS |author-link=Pacific Bulb Society|title=Crocus |url=https://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Crocus |website=Photographs and Information |access-date=21 January 2022 |date=5 March 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Bowles |title=Crocus Collection |website=[[Edward Augustus Bowles|E. A. Bowles]] of Myddelton House Society|url=https://www.eabowlessociety.org.uk/crocus |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Bowles |title=Crocus Collection |website=[[Edward Augustus Bowles|E. A. Bowles]] of Myddelton House Society|url=https://www.eabowlessociety.org.uk/crocus |access-date=23 January 2022 |date=2022}}
* {{cite web |last1=Lonsdale |first1=John |title=Crocus |url=http://www.thealpinegarden.com/thumbnailindexcrocus.htm |website=The Lonsdale Collection |publisher=The Alpine Garden |access-date=23 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225192223/http://www.thealpinegarden.com/thumbnailindexcrocus.htm |archive-date=25 February 2014}}  
* {{cite web |last1=Lonsdale |first1=John |title=Crocus |url=http://www.thealpinegarden.com/thumbnailindexcrocus.htm |website=The Lonsdale Collection |publisher=The Alpine Garden |access-date=23 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225192223/http://www.thealpinegarden.com/thumbnailindexcrocus.htm |archive-date=25 February 2014}}  
Line 495: Line 501:
** [http://wcsp.science.kew.org/qsearch.do?page=quickSearch&plantName=Crocus List of Crocus species]
** [http://wcsp.science.kew.org/qsearch.do?page=quickSearch&plantName=Crocus List of Crocus species]
* Flora of China
* Flora of China
** {{cite web |last1=  Zhao  |first1=Yu-tang |last2=Noltie|first2= Henry J. |last3=  Mathew|first3=Brian F.|authorlink3=Brian Mathew|title= Crocus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 36. 1753.|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=108403 |page=313|access-date=6 January 2022|year=2004|ref={{harvid|Zhao et al|2004}}}}, in [[Flora of China (series)|Flora of China online]] vol. 24
** {{cite web |last1=  Zhao  |first1=Yu-tang |last2=Noltie|first2= Henry J. |last3=  Mathew|first3=Brian F.|author-link3=Brian Mathew|title= Crocus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 36. 1753.|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=108403 |page=313|access-date=6 January 2022|year=2004|ref={{harvid|Zhao et al|2004}}}}, in [[Flora of China (series)|Flora of China online]] vol. 24
** {{cite web |last1=  Wencai  |first1= Wang|last2= Bartholomew|first2=  Bruce|title= Pulsatilla Miller, Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4. [1136]. 1754.|url= http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=127637|page=329|access-date=10 January 2022|year=2004}}, in [[Flora of China (series)|Flora of China online]] vol. 6
** {{cite web |last1=  Wencai  |first1= Wang|last2= Bartholomew|first2=  Bruce|title= Pulsatilla Miller, Gard. Dict. Abr., ed. 4. [1136]. 1754.|url= http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=127637|page=329|access-date=10 January 2022|year=2004}}, in [[Flora of China (series)|Flora of China online]] vol. 6
* {{cite web |last1=Ali |first1=S. I. |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |authorlink2=Brian Mathew|title=Crocus L. |url=http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/40016737?projectid=32 |website=[[Flora of Pakistan]] |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=7 January 2022 |date=2011}}
* {{cite web |last1=Ali |first1=S. I. |last2=Mathew |first2=Brian |author-link2=Brian Mathew|title=Crocus L. |url=http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/40016737?projectid=32 |website=[[Flora of Pakistan]] |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=7 January 2022 |date=2011}}
* {{cite web|last1=GBIF|authorlink=Global Biodiversity Information Facility|title=Crocus L.|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/2747303|accessdate=9 January 2022|ref={{harvid|GBIF|2022}}}}
* {{cite web|last1=GBIF|author-link=Global Biodiversity Information Facility|title=Crocus L.|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/2747303|access-date=9 January 2022|ref={{harvid|GBIF|2022}}}}


{{refend}}
{{refend}}

Latest revision as of 03:52, 29 September 2025

Template:Short description Script error: No such module "about". Template:Automatic taxobox

Crocus (Template:IPAc-en; plural: crocuses or croci) is a genus of seasonal flowering plants in the family Iridaceae (iris family) comprising about 100 species of perennials growing from corms.

They are low growing plants, whose flower stems remain underground, that bear relatively large white, yellow, orange or purple flowers and then become dormant after flowering. Many are cultivated for their flowers, appearing in autumn, winter, or spring. The flowers close at night and in overcast weather conditions.

The crocus has been known throughout recorded history, mainly as the source of saffron. Saffron is obtained from the dried stigma of Crocus sativus, an autumn-blooming species. It is valued as a spice and dyestuff, and is one of the most expensive spices in the world. Iran is the center of saffron production.

Crocuses are native to woodland, scrub, and meadows from sea level to alpine tundra from the Mediterranean, through North Africa, central and southern Europe, the islands of the Aegean, the Middle East and across Central Asia to Xinjiang in western China. Crocuses may be propagated from seed or from daughter cormels formed on the corm, that eventually produce mature plants. They arrived in Europe from Turkey in the 16th century and became valued as an ornamental flowering plant.

<templatestyles src="Template:TOC limit/styles.css" />

Description

Illustration of two crocus species from 1891
Crocus sativus & C. vernus, Amédée Masclef,
Atlas des plantes de France, 1891
Botanical illustration of crocus sativus including vertical and crosssection of ovary
Crocus sativus, with ovary sectioned

General

Crocus display the general characteristics of family Iridaceae, which include basal cauline (arising from the aerial stem) leaves that sheath the stem base, hermaphrodite flowers that are relatively large and showy, the perianth petaloid with two whorls of three tepals each and septal nectaries. The flowers have three stamens and a gynoecium of three united carpels and an inferior ovary, three locules and axile placentation with fruit that is a loculicidal capsule.Template:Sfn

Crocus is an acaulescent (lacking a visible lower stem above ground) diminutive seasonal cormous (growing from corms) herbaceous perennial geophytic genus.Template:Sfn The corms are symmetrical and globose or oblate (round in shape with flatted tops and bottoms), and are covered with tunic leaves that are fibrous, membranous or coriaceous (leathery). The corms produce fibrous roots, and contractile roots which adjust the corms depth in the soil, which may be pulled as deep as Script error: No such module "convert". into the soil.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The roots appear randomly from the lower part of the corm, but in a few species, from a basal ridge.Template:Sfn

Leaves

Plants produce several basal linear bifacial green leaves that arise from the corms. These are adaxially (upper surface facing axis) flat or channelled with pale median stripes, while the opposite (abaxial) surface is strongly keeled, with two grooves on either side. The leaves have a distinctive shape in cross-section, being boat-shaped with two lateral arms with margins recurved inwardly towards the central ridged keel, forming the sides of the "boat". The keel may be square or rectangular, but is lacking in C. carpetanus. The pale central stripe is caused by parenchymatous cells which lack chloroplasts and may contain air spaces.Template:Sfn The leaves are from Script error: No such module "convert". wide and Script error: No such module "convert". long. The leaf-like bracts are membranous, while the smaller bracteoles are either membranous or absent.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The leaf bases are surrounded by up to 5 membranous sheaths called cataphylls, a specialised leaf. The bases of the cataphylls form the corm tunic, and their number varies from 3 to 6, and enclose the true leaves (euphylls), bracts, bracteoles and flowering stalk.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Flowers

The number of peduncles (flower stems) vary from one to several and remain underground, emerging only at the fruiting stage, bearing flowers that are solitary or several, so that a true scape is absent. The flowers are pedicellate (attached to the peduncle by a short subterranean pedicel stalk). The pedicel is sometimes subtended (below pedicel) by a membranous, sheathing prophyll (leaf-like structure).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The showy, salver to cup-shaped, single or clustered actinomorphic flowers taper off into a narrow tube; the flowers emerge from the ground, and can be white, yellow, lilac to dark purple, or variegated in cultivars. The flower tube is long, cylindrical and slender, expanding apically. The floral tube is long and narrow with 6 lobes in 2 whorls. The perianth is 3+3 (3 sepals+3 petals) and gamophyllous (with fused segments). The tepal whorls are similar, equal or subequal with a smaller inner whorl, and cupped to outspread. The bracts are membranous, but the inner ones are sometimes lacking.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The 3 stamens are erect and linear and inserted in the throat of the perianth tube, with anthers shorter than the filaments. Pollen grains are inaperturate (apertures absent) but sometimes spiraperturate (spiral shaped).Template:Sfn Each flower has a single style which is exserted (projecting beyond the corolla tube) and slender distally with three to many branches. The branches are highly variable, being short or long, and simple, bifurcate (dividing in two) or multifid and sometimes distally flattened. The inferior ovary has 3 carpels with axile placentation. It remains underground, and as the seeds ripen, the pedicel (stem of the flower) grows longer so the fruit is above the soil surface.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Fruit and seed

The fruit is a small membranous capsule, ellipsoid or oblong-ellipsoid in shape and the many seeds are globose to ellipsoid. The seed surface is highly variable, including papillate (covered in small protuberances), digitiform (finger-like) and other epidermal cell types. In some species the seeds are arillate, with fleshy appendages. Crocus seeds have both inner and outer integuments and in some species the outer epidermis may display long papillae. Embryo-sac development is Polygonum type. Dehiscence (splitting of the capsule to release the seed) is of the loculicidal type in which it splits through the wall of the locules leaving the septa that separate them intact.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Karyology

Crocus has extensive aneuploidy (abnormal number of chromosomes), with some uncertainty as to the base number of chromosomes. The chromosome numbers shows extreme variability, ranging from 2n=6 to 2n=70 even within a single species.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Phytochemistry

The Iridaceae contain a wide range of phenolic compounds. However, 6-Hydroxyflavones are found only in Crocus, which is also characterised by the presence of crocins, water-soluble yellow carotenoids, in the floral tissues. Crocin is a diester of crocetin, responsible for the colour of the styles and stigma of C. sativus, and hence saffron.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn A few species contain mangiferin, a Template:Chem name.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

While the flowers may vary dramatically between species, there is little variation in the leaves,Template:Sfn but sufficient variability in corm tunics that they may be used as an aid in differentiating taxa.Template:Sfn

Script error: No such module "Multiple image".
Photograph of whole crocus plant from roots to flower

Taxonomy

History

Script error: No such module "Multiple image". The crocus was well known to the ancients,Template:Sfn being described at least as early as Theophrastus (c. 371Template:Sndc. 287 BC),Template:EfnTemplate:Sfn and was introduced into Britain by the Romans, where the saffron crocus was used as a dyestuff. It was reintroduced into Western Europe by the Crusaders. The crocus is mentioned in mediaeval and later herbals, one of the earliest being the 14th century Tractatus de Herbis.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn William Turner (1548) states that the crocus is referred to as saffron in English, implying that only C. sativus was known at that time.Template:Sfn However, by 1597 John Gerard writes of "sundry sorts" and uses the term saffron and crocus as interchangeable. He included both spring and autumn flowering crocus, but distinguished Wild Saffron (Crocus) from Meadow Saffron (Colchicum). He described eleven forms. Some of his specimens were obtained from Clusius.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In the following century, John Parkinson in a more detailed account was more careful to include separate chapters for Colchicum, with the common name of meadow saffron, from Crocus or saffron. Parkinson (1656) states that there are "divers sorts of saffrons" describing 27 spring flowering plants and 4 autumn flowering ones, pointing out that only one of those was the true saffron crocus, which he called Crocus verus sativus autumnalis.Template:Sfn Similar accounts are found in continental European herbals, including those of l'Obel in Flanders (1576)Template:Sfn and Besler's Hortus Eystettensis in Bavaria (1613).Template:Sfn

The genus Crocus was first formally described by Linnaeus in 1753, with three taxa, and two species, C. sativus (type species), var. officinalis (now treated as a synonym of C. sativus) and var. vernus (now C. vernus) and C. bulbocodium (now Romulea bulbocodium). Thus Linnaeus recognised two taxa that are accepted as separate species in modern classifications, one vernal and one autumnal crocus, but incorrectly assumed they were only varieties of a single species, while his second species was actually from a closely related genus that was only recognised later (1772).Template:Sfn However, a subsequent re-examination of Linnaeus's specimens suggested the presence of several different species that he did not recognise as being separate.Template:Sfn Linnaeus' system, based on sexual characteristics, Crocus was classified as Triandra Monogynia (Three stamens, Single pistil).Template:Sfn Linnaeus's system was supplanted by the "natural" system which used a hierarchy of taxonomic ranks based on weighting of the importance of structural characteristics of the plant. Jussieu (1789) placed the genus Crocus in his Ordo (family) Irides or Les iris, as a member of the class Stamina epigyna (stamens inserted above the ovary) as part of the monocotyledons, the first level of the division of the flowering plants.Template:Sfn

Page from Linnaeus' 1753 work describing Crocus
Linnaeus's description of Crocus 1753

One of the first monographs of the genus appeared in 1809, by Haworth,Template:Sfn followed in 1829 by that of Sabine,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and Herbert in 1847.Template:Sfn In 1853, Lindley continued the placement of Crocus as one of 53 genera in Iridaceae, which he included in a higher order of monocotyledons, the Narcissales.Template:Sfn Baker published a monograph on the genus in 1874, adopting a very different schema to that of Herbert.Template:Sfn In 1883, Bentham and Hooker described the Irideae (Iridaceae) as having more than 700 species, and divided it into 3 tribes and further into subtribes. Tribe Sysyrinchieae as having 2 subtribes, including Ixieae. The latter was circumscribed with four genera, Crocus, Syringodea, Galaxia (Moraea) and Romulea.Template:Sfn This circumscription has remained stable since, with the exception of Moraea which properly belongs in a separate tribe. The most influential monograph of the nineteenth century was that of Maw (1886), which forms the basis of modern understanding of the genus. Maw built on the work of Herbert, rejecting Baker's classification.Template:Sfn The availability of molecular phylogenetic methods in the late twentieth century has shown that the Iridaceae properly belong within the order Asparagales.Template:Sfn

Botanical illustration

The scientific study of the genus in the late eighteenth century was accompanied by detailed descriptions with Botanical illustrations, such as those of William Curtis (1787) and Sims (1803),Template:Sfn that appeared in Curtis's Botanical Magazine, with illustrations by Sydenham Edwards.Template:Sfn Other illustrations are found in monographs such as those of Haworth (1809)Template:Sfn and Sabine (1830), illustrated by Charles John Robertson.Template:Sfn The largest collection is found in the most comprehensive monograph, that of Maw (1886).Template:Sfn Other sources include the portfolios of plates, such as the survey of the plants of France by Masclef (1891). At that time only C. sativus and C. vernus were included in the Flora of France.Template:Sfn Script error: No such module "Multiple image".

Phylogeny

The genus Crocus belongs to the monocot family Iridaceae (iris family), specifically the large subfamily Crocoideae. Within that subfamily, crocus is placed on the tribe, Ixieae (synonym Croceae),Template:Efn one of five. The Ixieae are then subdivided into subtribes, with the genera Crocus, Romulea and Syringodea forming subtribe Romuleinae. The Romuleinae have been characterised within the Ixieae by progressively reduced aerial stems.Template:Sfn solitary flowers on the stem branches and woody tunics on the corms. They also often have divided style branches. However, Crocus corm tunics are fibrous and membranous rather than woody as in Syringodea. Also, Crocus has a ridged and often keeled abaxial leaf surface, while that of Syringodea is rounded, and the midline adaxial translucency of Crocus is lacking in Syringodea. Romulea is principally distinguished from the other two genera by generally having aerial stems or at least an ovary at ground level, compared with the other acaulescent genera, other differences include unifacial rather than bifacial leaves and the pollen structure.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Within the Romuleinae, Crocus is a sister group to Syringodea, the two genera forming a sister group to Romulea.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Subdivision

The genus Crocus consists of about 200 accepted species, which continue to increase, and has undergone a large number of taxonomic classifications.Template:Sfn The genus has often been divided into sections, beginning with that of Haworth (1809)Template:Sfn who described two sections based on the presence or absence of hairs in the throat of the flower, while Sabine was the first to realise the importance of the presence or absence of a basal spathe (prophyll) in dividing the genus into two sections,Template:Sfn a practice followed by Herbert.Template:Sfn However, Sabine's practice of using trinomials for varieties such as C. sulphureus concolor is no longer accepted, although Herbert somewhat similarly used varieties and subvarieties, e.g. C. vernus var.1 Communis subvar. 1. Obovatus. Herbert also used geographical distribution as a basis of classification.Template:Sfn By the late 19th century Maw (1886),Template:Sfn following Herbert, subdivided the genus into two divisions, the Involucrati and the Nudiflori, and then further divided it into six sections and lastly by flowering times (spring or autumn). Although rejecting the concept of subvarieties, he placed even more emphasis on geography.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The most widely accepted system, that proposed by Brian Mathew in 1982Template:Sfn was based on Maw's system, but with less emphasis on flowering times. This mainly depended on three character states:

  • the presence or absence of a prophyll (a basal spathe);
  • the aspect of the style;
  • the corm tunic.

and included 81 species, however, one of these, Crocus medius was later recognized as a synonym of Crocus nudiflorus.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The genus, as described by Mathew, consisted of two subgenera, Crocirus (monotypic for Crocus banaticus) and Crocus including the remainder of the species, based on whether the anthers were introrse or extrorse (dehiscence directed towards or away from centre of flower) respectively. Subgenus Crocus was then divided into two sections, Crocus and Nudiscapus, based on the presence or absence of the prophyll. Each section was then further divided into six series of Crocus and nine of Nudiscapus. These series were defined by the division of the style, the corm tunic, flowering time, leaf structure, presence of a bracteole and anther colour. Mathew also introduced the concept of subspecies, including 50 in all, by giving similar but different forms subspecies status if geographically separated, resulting in about 140 distinct taxa.Template:Sfn The seven species and ten subspecies discovered since then have been integrated into revisions of this classification, though new species continue to be described,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn leading to estimates of at least 200 species.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Speciation

Crocus populations have extremely high infra-specific variability with a very diverse spectrum of morphological and phenotypical varieties, while many individual specimens from different species may closely resemble each other. Based on such morphological differences between isolated populations many new species have been named, but without a definition of new species based on molecular and/or karyological information, species can not be confirmed, creating difficulties in determining speciation and hence the exact number of species.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The situation is even more complex once hybridisation (combination of taxa) and introgression (transfer of genetic material) are considered.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Molecular phylogeny

The availability of molecular phylogeny methods revealed problems with the traditional systems based on morphology alone. The first analysis of the complete genus was carried out by Mathew and colleagues in 2008 using nucleotide sequences from plastid regions. In particular, the DNA data suggest there are no grounds for isolating C. banaticus in its own subgenus Crociris, though it is a unique species in the genus. Because it has a prophyll at the base of the pedicel, it therefore would fall within section Crocus, although its exact relationship to the rest of the subgenus remains unclear.Template:Sfn

Of the 15 series in the Mathew scheme, only seven were monophyletic, and in particular the largest series, Biflori and Reticulati, which include a third of all species, were non-monophyletic. Another anomalous species, C. baytopiorum, should now be placed in a series of its own, series Baytopi. C. gargaricus subsp. herbertii has been raised to species status, as C. herbertii. The autumn-flowering C. longiflorus, the type species of series Longiflori (long regarded by Mathew as "a disparate assemblage"), appeared to lie within series Verni. In addition, the position of C. malyi was currently unclear.Template:Sfn

DNA analysis and morphological studies suggest further that series Reticulati, Biflori and Speciosi are "probably inseparable", C. adanensis and C. caspius should probably be removed from Biflori, C. adanensis falls in a clade with C. paschei as a sister group to the species of series Flavi and C. caspius appears to be sister to the species of series Orientales.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The study showed "no support for a system of sections as currently defined", although, despite the many inconsistencies between Mathew's 1982 classification and the current hypothesis, "the main assignment of species to the sections and series of that system is actually supported". The authors state, "further studies are required before any firm decisions about a hierarchical system of classification can be considered" and conclude "future re-classification is likely to involve all infrageneric levels, subgenera, sections and series".Template:Sfn A further study, using the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA), together with a chloroplast marker, broadly confirmed these findings.Template:Sfn

Crocus forms a monophyletic clade, with a basal polytomy of four subclades. The first clade (A) corresponding to section Crocus, but including C. sieberi and several closely related species (originally included in section Nudiscapus series Reticulati). The remaining three clades (B-D) include all the remaining species of section Nudiscapus. Of these, B and C are small, corresponding to series Orientales and Carpetani respectively, with all remaining series in the large D clade. The exception is C. caspius, originally in series Biflori, which segregates in clade B. Thus, although division of the genus into two sections is well supported, no single morphological character defines these two groups. The C. sieberi group are assumed to have lost their prophyll secondarily. Of the series, eight could be shown to be monophyletic; Crocus, Kotschyani and Scardici (section Crocus) and Aleppici, Carpetani, Laevigati, Orientalis and Speciosi (section Nudiscapus). Flowering season did not correspond to molecular groupings and nor did any of the previously used morphological characteristics, indicating a high degree of homoplasy, in which traits are gained or lost independently in different lineages. The remainder of the series could not be supported as natural groupings. Mathew's concept of subspecies status within C. biflorus could not be supported, each being considered a separate species, resulting in the genus having at least 150 species.Template:Sfn

A more detailed molecular and morphological study of series Verni (section Crocus) allowed it to be better characterised and circumscribed, as well as the closely related series Longiflori. Series Verni sensu Mathew was found to consist of two groups, the first being C. vernus sensu Mathew and the other consisting of C. etruscus, ilvensis, kosaninii and longiflorus. The taxonomic status of C. vernus had been uncertain for some time, given the observation that the name was more properly applied to C. albiflorus,Template:Sfn requiring a new designation of C. neapolitanus for those previously known as C. vernus. Subsequently C. vernus was split into 5 separate species. The incorporation of C. longiflorus into series Verni resulted in making series Longiflori no longer a legitimate taxonomic unit.Template:Sfn

In section Nudiscapus, series Reticulati was polyphyletic with species intermingled with series Biflori and Speciosi, requiring a recircumscription, confining Reticulati to 8 species, to obtain monophyly.Template:Sfn Among the thereby displaced species, are a number of very closely related taxa, referred to as the Crocus sieberi aggregate, which has been proposed as a new series Sieberi.Template:Sfn Other new series, such as Isauri and Lyciotauri, continue to be created out of the Biflori series.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Mathew's circumscription of Crocus introduced the rank of subspecies, of which the largest number (14) were those of Crocus biflorus Miller, the type species of series Biflori, a number which continued to grow. Molecular methods identified these as a polyphyletic assemblage rather than closely related subordinate infraspecific taxa. This necessitated a complete taxonomic revision of series Biflori, elevating each subspecies to species status.Template:Sfn A similar issue occurs with C. reticulatus sensu Mathew, who created two subspecies, resulting in 9 newly defined species.Template:Sfn

Sections and species

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The classification of Brian Mathew (1982), as amended in 2009 divides the genus into two sections, further divided by series.Template:Sfn The number of series, continues to evolve.

  • Section Crocus B.Mathew

Species with a basal prophyll. Type species C. sativus L.

6 series
  • Section Nudiscapus B.Mathew

Species without a basal prophyll. Type species C. reticulatus Stev. ex Adams

9 series

Similarly named species

Some crocus species, known as "autumn crocus", flower in late summer and autumn, during (autumnal) rains, after summer's heat and drought. The name autumn crocus is also often used as a common name for Colchicum,Template:Sfn which is not a true crocus but in its own family (Colchicaceae) in the lily order Liliales. The plants are toxic, but have medicinal uses. Colchicum are also known as meadow saffron, though true saffron is not toxic.Template:Sfn Crocus species have three stamens while Colchicum species have six;Template:Sfn crocus have one style, while Colchicum have three.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Some Pulsatilla species are also called "prairie crocus" (previously Anemone patens) or "wild crocus", but they belong to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Pulsatilla species, which are commonly called pasqueflowers, unlike crocuses have rhizomes, the foliage is covered with long soft hairs, and the flowers are produced on above-ground stems.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Etymology

"Crocus", the name of the genus, is Late Middle English (late 14th century) and also denotes saffron. It is derived via Latin crocus from the Greek κρόκος (krokos),Template:Sfn which is itself probably a loan word from a Semitic language, related to Hebrew כרכום karkōm,Template:Sfn Aramaic ܟܟܘܪܟܟܡܡܐ kurkama, and Arabic Script error: No such module "Lang". kurkum, meaning saffron (Crocus sativus), "saffron yellow" or turmeric (see Curcuma), another yellow dye.Template:Sfn The word ultimately traces back to the Sanskrit kunkumam (Script error: No such module "Lang".) for "saffron". The English name is a learned 16th-century adoption from the Latin safranum, but Old English already had croh for saffron, introduced by the Romans.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Distribution and habitat

Crocuses are distributed from the Mediterranean, from the Iberian peninsula and North Africa, through central and southern Europe, the islands of the Aegean, the Middle East and across central and southwest Asia to Xinjiang in western China, but most species are restricted to Turkey and Asia Minor and the Balkans, with the Balkan Peninsula having the largest number of species (at least 31),Template:Sfn forming the centre of diversity, however they are widely introduced.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The distribution of species is described over five contiguous areas from west to east (see map).Template:Sfn Script error: No such module "Multiple image". Habitats range from sea level to as high as subalpine altitudes, and in a wide range of habitats from woodlands to meadows and deserts, often on stony mountain slopes with good drainage.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The majority of species are native to areas with cold winters and hot summers with little rain, and active growth is typically from fall to mid-spring.Template:Sfn The natural habitats of crocus species are threatened by human activities, including urbanization, industrialization, and other land disturbances and recreational uses. They are negatively impacted by uncontrolled gathering and heavy grazing by livestock.Template:Sfn

Ecology

Illustrations of germinating crocus seed
Successive stages of germination from seed to seedling (G Maw)

The life cycle of Crocus species begins with the seed, germinating to a seedling, and a mature plant in 3–5 years, however seeds may remain dormant in the soil for several years. The germination stages were first described and illustrated by Maw in his 1886 monograph.Template:Sfn In its first year, the crocus produces only a single leaf and creates a corm covered by a thin tunic, about 5–8 mm in size, dependent on the species. In the northern hemisphere, the autumnal crocuses flower between September and November. The vernal (spring) crocuses flowering time depends both on climate and habitat, but is usually mid-winter to spring. Leaves may be synanthous (produced during flowering) or hysteranthous (when the flowers wither away).Template:Sfn In the summer, with hot and dry conditions the plant becomes dormant, with all the above ground parts dying back. Colder temperatures in winter then activate the corms.Template:Sfn Propagation occurs sexually by seed and asexually by small corms, called cormels or cormlets, produced in the axils of the corms (between tunic scales and body of corm).Template:Sfn As the fruit capsule ripens, it emerges from the soil at the base of the flowering stem before dehiscing (splitting open) and releasing the seeds.Template:Sfn Seed dispersal may be enhanced by ants, at least in species with arillate seeds.Template:Sfn

At night and in overcast weather, the perianth closes. The ovary produces nectar which attracts bees (particularly female bumblebees) and Lepidoptera.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Pests and diseases

Cultivated plants may have their corms consumed by mice and other rodents,Template:Sfn including voles, squirrels,Template:Sfn and chipmunks. They are also attacked by mildew, gray mold, botrytis, and fusarium rot. Root rot may also occur, caused by Stromatinia gladioli and Pythium species. The nematode Pratylenchus penetrans may also cause root rot.Template:Sfn Viruses that are known to infect Crocus spp include: Potyviruses, especially bean yellow mosaic virus and also tobacco rattle virus, tobaccos necrosis virus, and cucumber mosaic virus.Template:Sfn The foliage may experience rot, rust, and scab diseases and be fed upon by aphids, mites, snails, and slugs.Template:Sfn The foliage is eaten by hares, rabbits, and deer; the flowers are sometimes removed by birds, including crows, jackdaws, and magpies.Template:Sfn

Cultivation

Minoan Fresco of Saffron Gatherer
Saffron gatherers in Minoan fresco, Santorini c. 1650 BC
Photograph of field of saffron crocus growing in Iran
Saffron fields in Iran

Saffron

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".

The economic importance of the genus is largely dependent on the single species, Crocus sativus, now known only in cultivation.Template:Sfn C. sativus is grown for the production of saffron, an orange-red derivative of its dried stigma, and among the most expensive spices in the world.Template:Sfn The estimated worldwide production of C. sativus plants is 205 tons.Template:Sfn About 180,000 stigmas from 60,000 flowers are required to produce Script error: No such module "convert". saffron, which sells for about US$10,000 (2018). Modern saffron production is widely cultivated in Kashmir, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and the Mediterranean from Spain to Asia Minor.Template:Sfn An important center is the eponymous town of Krokos, in the Kozani region of Greece. The saffron product, Krokos Kozanis is a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Production is largely indigenous and Iran accounts for 65% of global production, covering 72,162 ha.Template:Sfn

Saffron is thought to have been used in embalming in Ancient Egypt. It is mentioned in the Old Testament, in the Song of Songs as a precious spice and has featured as a dye and fragrance throughout written history, with mention in the Iliad.Template:Sfn

Cultivation and harvesting of C. sativus for saffron was first documented in the Mediterranean, notably on the island of Crete. Frescos showing them are found there at the Bronze Age Minoan site of Knossos, as well as from the comparably aged Akrotiri site on the Aegean island of Santorini,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and formed an important part of the Minoan economy and culture and had both a sacred role and use as a psychoactive drug and food additive.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Women still gather crocuses in the Akrotiri region.Template:Sfn

Horticulture and floriculture

Crocuses were described in Turkish gardens in the early sixteenth century,Template:Sfn gathered from the far reaches of the Ottoman Empire,Template:Sfn where they were seen by visiting European botanists and explorers, among the first of whom was Pierre Belon who arrived in Constantinople in 1547. The first crocus seen in the Netherlands, where crocus species were not native, were from corms brought to Vienna in 1562 from Constantinople by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. A few corms were forwarded to Carolus Clusius at the botanical garden in Leiden.Template:Sfn These were almost certainly cultivated varieties rather than wild species.Template:Sfn European visitors to Turkey continued to bring back specimens for gardens in their own country. Prominent among the latter were the gardens at Middelburg in the Netherlands. Jehan Somer, a Middelburg merchant, brought back crocuses among his other specimens in 1592, where they attracted the attention not only of Clusius but of the early Dutch flower painters, notably Ambrosius Bosschaert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn By 1620, new garden varieties had been developed, and featured in contemporary illustrations, such as that of Crispijn van de Passe in his Hortus floridus of 1614.Template:Sfn There are accounts of crocus gardens in the seventeenth century, such as the Saffron Garth of Walter Stonehouse at Darfield, Yorkshire.Template:Sfn

Crocuses are among the most important ornamental geophytes in the global flower industry,Template:Sfn ranking sixth in terms of Dutch bulb production (2003–2008) with 463–668 ha under cultivation.Template:Sfn The crocus is one of the most popular flowers found in the garden in the late winter and early spring.Template:Sfn About 30 of the species are cultivated, among the most popular being C. chrysanthus, C. flavus, C. sieberi, C. tommasinianus and C. vernus, together with hundreds of cultivars derived from them.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Both fall and spring blooming crocuses are cultivated for their flowers.Template:Sfn Among the first flowers to bloom in spring, their flowering time can vary from fall to the late winter blooming C. tommasinianus; the earliest fall blooming species, C. scharojanii, may flower during the last weeks of July.Template:Sfn

The varieties cultivated for decoration in gardens and pots mainly represent six species: C. vernus, C. chrysanthus, C. flavus, C. sieberi, C. speciosus and C. tommasinianus. During the horticulture production year 2009/2010, more than 70 cultivars were grown in Holland, covering an area of 366 hectares; the most common ones were 'Flower Record' and 'King of the Stripes' which accounted for 42 hectares, other species grown included C. chrysanthus, C. tommasinianus, and C. flavus - all are spring blooming plants.Template:Sfn But the most commonly grown plants are the Dutch hybrids with large flowers in a rich palette of colors.Template:Sfn

Both sexual and asexual means are used to increase the number of plants; seeds and multiplication of corms are the most common means of production, but tissue culture can be used,Template:Sfn most commonly for saffron crocus. New corms are formed on top of the older corm which withers away, and cormels are produced from axillary buds.Template:Sfn The production of new plants begins with harvested corms in late June to early July, after being graded by corm size the corms are stored around 22 Celsius until early October when they are moved to 17 Celsius until planted later in October and November; flowering occurs in March and the flowers are not removed. Crocuses are also forced to produce flowering plants out of season and the most common species used are C. vernus and C. flavus, and most of the corms used for forcing come from the Netherlands.Template:Sfn

Spring flowering types are planted in fall, while fall-blooming types in late summer; typically, the corms are placed 3 to 4 inches deep in well-draining soil in areas with full sun exposure. They do not thrive in heavy clay soils or those that are damp, especially during their summer dormancy period.Template:Sfn Commercial crops are produced on raised beds and slopes, to ensure adequate drainage, while horticulturalists often plant on sand beds for the same purpose.Template:Sfn Spring flowering types also do well in areas with deciduous trees, where they flower and produce leaves before the trees completely leaf-out. Crocuses are grown in USDA winter zones 3–8.Template:Sfn Not all species are hardy in the upper zones; C. sativus is winter hardy in USDA zones 6 through 8, and C. pulchellus is hardy in zones 5 through 8.Template:Sfn

Some are suitable for naturalizing in grass, but mowing off the foliage before it turns yellow produces short lived plants. Some crocuses, especially C. tommasinianus and its selected forms and hybrids (such as 'Whitewell Purple' and 'Ruby Giant'), seed prolifically and are ideal for naturalizing. They can, however, become weeds in rock gardens, where they will often appear in the middle of choice, mat-forming alpine plants, and can be difficult to remove. Crocus flowers and leaves are protected from frost by a waxy cuticle; in areas where snow and frost occasionally occur in the early spring, it is not uncommon to see early flowering crocuses blooming through a light late snowfall.Template:Sfn

Autumn crocus

Autumn-flowering species of crocus that are cultivated include:Template:Sfn

C. laevigatus has a long flowering period which starts in late autumn or early winter and may continue into February.

Colchicum autumnale is commonly known as "autumn crocus", but is a member of the plant family Colchicaceae, and not a true crocus (of the family Iridaceae).

Uses

The corms of crocuses have been used as foodstuffs in Syria.Template:Sfn The carotenoids found in the styles of Crocus species, particularly C. sativus have been shown to inhibit cancer cell proliferation, and have led to interest in potential pharmaceutical applications.Template:Sfn

Culture

The crocus or krokos has been known since ancient times, and used in decorative arts, such as the Minoan wall paintings in Santorini from ca. 1,600 BC.Template:Sfn Representations of the saffron crocus appear frequently in Minoan artTemplate:Sfn and pervade Aegean art from the Early Bronze Age to the Mycenaean period.Template:Sfn Theophrastos (4th century BC) described the saffron crocus as being valued as a spice and dye, while Homer compares a sunrise to the flower colour.Template:Sfn Saffron coloured robes were much admired by women in antiquityTemplate:Sfn and gave the garment Crocota its name.Template:Sfn The oil was also valued as a cosmetic.Template:Sfn According to Greek legend Crocus or Krokus (Template:Langx), was a mortal youth the gods turned into a plant bearing his name, the crocus, after his death caused by his great desire and unfulfilled love for the shepherdess Smilax.Template:Sfn Other versions state that as he died three tears fell into the flower becoming its three stigmata.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Crocuses occur in many flower paintings, one of the earliest being that of Ambrosius Bosschaert's Composed Bouquet of Spring Flowers (1620). In this painting the cream-colored crocus feathered with bronze at the base of the bouquet reflected varieties on the market at that time. Bosschaert, working from a preparatory drawing to paint his composed piece spanning the whole of spring, exaggerated the crocus so that it passes for a tulip, but its narrow, grass-like leaves give it away.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

The crocus is used in many contexts to symbolically denote spring and new beginnings. For instance, it was used as the emblem of the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Poland to symbolise the emergence of new talent.Template:Sfn Script error: No such module "Multiple image".

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Bibliography

<templatestyles src="Refbegin/styles.css" />

Books

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Link note
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Link note
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Link note

Gardening, horticulture and floriculture

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Link note
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Link note
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., (link note|note=see also Online Etymology Dictionary
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., Template:Link note
    • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
    • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Link note
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Historical sources (chronological)

Antiquity
14th century
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
16th century
17th century
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
18th century
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., see also Species Plantarum
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
19th century
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
    • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Chapters

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., in Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., in Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., in Script error: No such module "Footnotes".

Articles

  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Phylogeny and taxonomy

  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

Novel taxa

  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

Historical accounts

  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

Websites

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "anchor".Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

Organisations and collections

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

Databases and flora

  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Flora of China
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

External links

Script error: No such module "Sister project links".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

Template:Taxonbar Template:Authority control

Retrieved from "http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Crocus&oldid=3199616"