Western Neo-Aramaic

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Western Neo-Aramaic (Script error: No such module "Lang"., arōmay, "Aramaic"), also referred to as Siryon[1] (Script error: No such module "Lang"., "Syriac"),[2][3][4] is a modern variety of the Western Aramaic branch consisting of three closely related dialects.[5] Today, it is spoken by Christian and Muslim Arameans (Syriacs)[6][7][8][9][10][11][12] in only two villages— Maaloula and Jubb'adin (and until recently, Bakhʽa)—in the Anti-Lebanon mountains of western Syria.[13] Bakhʽa was vastly destroyed during the Syrian civil war and most of the community fled to other parts of Syria or Lebanon.[14] Western Neo-Aramaic is believed to be the closest living language to the language of Jesus, whose first language, according to scholarly consensus, was Galilean Aramaic belonging to the Western branch as well; all other remaining Neo-Aramaic languages are Eastern Aramaic.[15]

Distribution and history

Western Neo-Aramaic is the sole surviving remnant of the once extensive Western Aramaic-speaking area, which also included the Palestine region and Lebanon in the 7th century.[16] It is now spoken exclusively by the inhabitants of Maaloula and Jubb'adin, about Script error: No such module "convert". northeast of Damascus. The continuation of this little cluster of Aramaic in a sea of Arabic is partly due to the relative isolation of the villages and their close-knit Christian and Muslim communities.

Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, there was a linguistic shift to Arabic for local Muslims and later for remaining Christians; Arabic displaced various Aramaic dialects, including Western Aramaic varieties, as the first language of the majority. Despite this, Western Aramaic appears to have survived for a relatively long time at least in some remote mountain villages in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. In fact, up until the 17th century, travelers in Lebanon still reported on several Aramaic-speaking villages.[17] The villages of Deir Atiyah and Sadad were reported to have spoken Aramaic in the 1830s, and Ain al-Tinah likewise in the 1860s.[18] The Austrian orientalist Alfred von Kremer claimed it was spoken in Qaryatayn ("Kurietein") in 1850[19], but the veracity of this account is questionable.[20]

The dialect of Bakhʽa was the most conservative. Arabic less influenced it than the other dialects and retains some vocabulary that is obsolete in other dialects. The dialect of Jubb'adin changed the most. Arabic heavily influenced it and has a more developed phonology. The dialect of Maaloula is somewhere in between the two, but closer to that of Jubb'adin.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

The cross-linguistic influence between Aramaic and Arabic has been mutual, as Syrian Arabic itself (and Levantine Arabic in general) retains an Aramaic substratum.[21] Similar to the Eastern Neo-Aramaic languages, Western Neo-Aramaic uses Kurdish loanwords unlike other Western Aramaic dialects, e. g. in their negation structure: "Čū ndōmex", meaning "I do not sleep" in the Maalouli dialect.[22][23] These influences might indicate an older historical connection between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Aramaic speakers.[24] Other strong linguistic influences on Western Neo-Aramaic include Akkadian during the Neo-Babylonian period, e. g. the names of the months: āšbaṭ (Akk. šabāṭu, "February"), ōḏar (Akk. ad(d)aru, "March"), iyyar (Akk. ayyaru, "May") or agricultural terms such as nīra (Akk. nīru, "yoke"), sekkṯa (Akk. sikkatu, "plowshare"), senta (Akk. sendu, "to grind") or nbūba (Akk. enbūbu, "fruit").[25][26]

As in most of the Levant before the introduction of Islam in the seventh century, the three villages were originally all Christian until the 18th century.[27][28] Maaloula is the only village that retains a sizeable Melkite Christian population belonging to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and Melkite Greek Catholic Church; the inhabitants of Bakhʽa and Jubb’adin converted to Islam over the generations. However, the first Muslims were not native converts, but Arab families from Homs who were settled in the villages during the Ottoman era to monitor the Christian population.[29] Maaloula glows in the pale blue wash with which houses are painted every year in honor of Mary, mother of Jesus.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Historical accounts, as documented by the French linguist Jean Parisot in 1898, suggest that the people of Maaloula and nearby areas claim to be descendants of migrants from the Sinjar region (modern Iraq). According to their oral traditions, their ancestors embarked on a substantial migration in ancient times, driven by the challenges posed by the Muslim occupation of the northern part of Mesopotamia. Seeking refuge, they crossed the Euphrates and traversed the Palmyrene desert, eventually finding a lasting sanctuary among Western Aramaic-speaking communities in the highlands of eastern Syria.Template:Efn[30] In Maaloula and the surrounding villages, the surname ”Sinjar“ (Aramaic:ܣܢܓܐܪ) is borne by some Christian and Muslim families.[31]

All three remaining Western Neo-Aramaic dialects are facing critical endangerment as living languages. As with any village community in the 21st century, young residents are migrating into major cities like Damascus and Aleppo in search of better employment opportunities, thus forcing them into monolingual Arabic-speaking settings, in turn straining the opportunity to actively maintain Western Neo-Aramaic as a language of daily use. Nevertheless, the Syrian government provides support for teaching the language.[32]

Unlike Syriac, which has a rich literary tradition, Western Neo-Aramaic was solely passed down orally for generations until 2006 and was unwritten.[33] Since 2006, Maaloula has been home to an Aramaic language institute established by the Damascus University that teaches courses to keep the language alive. The institute's activities were suspended in 2010 amid concerns that the square Maalouli Aramaic alphabet used in the program, which was developed by the chairman of the language institute, George Rizkalla (Rezkallah), resembled the square script of the Hebrew alphabet. Consequently, all signs featuring the square Maalouli script were taken down.[34] The program stated that they would instead use the more distinct Syriac alphabet, although use of Maalouli square script has continued to some degree.[35] Al Jazeera Arabic also broadcast a program about Western Neo-Aramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use.[36]

In December 2016, during an Aramaic Singing Festival in Maaloula, a modified version of an older style of the Aramaic alphabet closer to the Phoenician alphabet was used for Western Neo-Aramaic. This script seems to be used as a true alphabet with letters to represent both consonants and vowels instead of the traditional system of the Aramaic alphabet where it is used as an abjad. A recently published book about the Maalouli Aramaic dialect also uses this script.[37][38]

Aramaic Bible Translation (ABT) has spent over a decade translating the Bible into Maalouli Western Neo-Aramaic and recording audio for Portrait of Jesus. Rinyo, the Syriac language organization, has published ABT's content, developed by Kanusoft.com. On their website, the Book of Psalms and Portrait of Jesus are available in Western Neo-Aramaic using the Syriac Serta script. Additionally, a New Testament translation into Western Neo-Aramaic was completed in 2017 and is now accessible online.[39][40][41]

An electronic speech corpus of Maalouli Western Neo-Aramaic has been available online since 2022.[42][43]

Phonology

The phonology of Western Neo-Aramaic has developed quite differently from other Aramaic dialects/languages. The labial consonants of older Western Aramaic, Script error: No such module "IPA". and Script error: No such module "IPA"., have been retained in Bakhʽa and Maaloula while they have mostly collapsed to Script error: No such module "IPA". in Jubb'adin under influence from Arabic. The labial consonant pair Script error: No such module "IPA". has collapsed to Script error: No such module "IPA". in all three villages. Amongst dental consonants, the fricatives Script error: No such module "IPA". are retained while Script error: No such module "IPA". have become Script error: No such module "IPA". in most places and Script error: No such module "IPA"., while remaining a phoneme, has had its traditional position in Aramaic words replaced by Script error: No such module "IPA". in Bakhʽa, and Script error: No such module "IPA". in Maaloula and Jubb'adin. However, Script error: No such module "IPA". is the usual form for the relative particle in these two villages, with a variant Script error: No such module "IPA"., where Bakhʽa always uses Script error: No such module "IPA".. Among the velar consonants, the traditional voiced pair of Script error: No such module "IPA". has collapsed into Script error: No such module "IPA"., while /ɡ/ still remains a phoneme in some words. The unvoiced velar fricative, Script error: No such module "IPA"., is retained, but its plosive complement Script error: No such module "IPA"., while also remaining a distinct phoneme, has in its traditional positions in Aramaic words started to undergo palatalization. In Bakhʽa, the palatalization is hardly apparent; in Maaloula, it is more obvious, and often leads to Script error: No such module "IPA".; in Jubb'adin, it has become Script error: No such module "IPA"., and has thus merged phonemically with the original positions of Script error: No such module "IPA".. The original uvular plosive, Script error: No such module "IPA"., has also moved forward in Western Neo-Aramaic. In Bakhʽa it has become a strongly post-velar plosive, and in Maaloula more lightly post-velar. In Jubb'adin, however, it has replaced the velar plosive, and become Script error: No such module "IPA".. Its phonology is strikingly similar to Arabic both being sister Semitic languages.

Consonants

Labial Dental/Alveolar Palato-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal 		Glottal
plain emphatic
Nasal Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Plosive Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink (Template:IPA link) Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Affricate (Template:IPA link) (Template:IPAlink Template:IPA link)
Fricative Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPA link Template:IPAlink Template:IPA link Template:IPAlink (Template:IPAlink) Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
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Vowels

Western Neo-Aramaic has the following set of vowels:[44]

Vowels
Front Back
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Open-mid Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Open Template:IPAlink

Alphabet

Square Maalouli alphabet

Square Maalouli alphabet used for Western Neo-Aramaic.[45] Long vowels are transcribed with macrons (Āā, Ēē, Īī, Ōō, Ūū) and are written with mater lectionis + File:Maaloula square wawf.svg for /o/ and /u/, File:Maaloula square yod.svg for /i/, which are also used at the end of a word if it ends with one of these vowels.

Maalouli letter File:Maaloula square alef.svg File:Maaloula square bet.svg File:Maaloula square vet.svg File:Maaloula square gemal.svg File:Maaloula square ghemal.svg File:Maaloula square dalet.svg File:Maaloula square dhalet.svg File:Maaloula square hi.svg File:Maaloula square wawf.svg File:Maaloula square zayn.svg File:Maaloula square het.svg File:Maaloula square tet.svg File:Maaloula square yod.svg File:Maaloula square kaf.svg
File:Maaloula square kaf 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square khaf.svg
File:Maaloula square khaf 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square lamed.svg File:Maaloula square mem.svg
File:Maaloula square mem 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square nun.svg
File:Maaloula square nun 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square sameh.svg File:Maaloula square ayn.svg File:Maaloula square pi.svg
File:Maaloula square pi 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square fi.svg
File:Maaloula square fi 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square sady.svg
File:Maaloula square sady 2.svg 		File:Maaloula square qof.svg File:Maaloula square resh.svg File:Maaloula square shin.svg File:Maaloula square taq.svg File:Maaloula square thaq.svg File:Maaloula square tshaq.svg
Hebrew letter א בּ ב גּ ג דּ ד ה ו ז ח ט י כּ ךּ כ ך ל מ ם נ ן ס ע פּ ףּ פ ף צ ץ ק ר שׁ תּ ת ת
Latin letter/Transliteration Aa, Ee, Ii, Oo, Uu
Āā, Ēē, Īī, Ōō, Ūū 		Bb Vv Gg Ġġ Dd Ḏḏ Hh Ww Zz Ḥḥ Ṭṭ Yy Kk H̱ẖ Ll Mm Nn Ss Ҁҁ Pp Ff Ṣṣ Qq Rr Šš Tt Ṯṯ Čč
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Syriac and Arabic alphabet

Syriac (Serta) and Arabic alphabet used for Western Neo-Aramaic.[46]

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Syriac letter Template:Script/Serto Template:Script/Serto Template:Script/Serto Template:Script/Serto Template:Script/Serto
Arabic letter ـَ ـِ ـُ ي و
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Alternate Aramaic alphabet

Characters of the script system similar to the Old Aramaic or Phoenician alphabet used occasionally for Western Neo-Aramaic with matching transliteration. The script is used as a true alphabet with distinct letters for all phonemes including vowels instead of the traditional abjad system with plosive-fricative pairs.[47][38]

Letter File:Maaloula b.png File:Maaloula ġ.png File:Maaloula ḏ.png File:Maaloula h.png File:Maaloula w.png File:Maaloula z.png File:Maaloula ḥ.png File:Maaloula ṭ.png File:Maaloula y.png File:Maaloula k.png File:Maaloula x.png File:Maaloula l.png File:Maaloula m.png File:Maaloula n.png File:Maaloula s.png File:Maaloula ʕ.png File:Maaloula p.png File:Maaloula f.png File:Maaloula ṣ.png File:Maaloula ḳ.png File:Maaloula r.png File:Maaloula š.png File:Maaloula t.png File:Maaloula ṯ.png File:Maaloula č.png File:Maaloula ž.png File:Maaloula ᶄ.png File:Maaloula ḏ̣.png File:Maaloula ẓ.png File:Maaloula stop.png
Transliteration b ġ ḏ h w z ḥ ṭ y k x l m n s ʕ p f ṣ ḳ r š t ṯ č ž ᶄ ḏ̣ ẓ '
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Letter File:Maaloula a.png File:Maaloula ā.png File:Maaloula e.png File:Maaloula ē.png File:Maaloula i.png File:Maaloula ī.png File:Maaloula o.png File:Maaloula ō.png File:Maaloula u.png File:Maaloula ū.png File:Maaloula ᵊ.png
Transliteration a ā e ē i ī o ō u ū ᵊ
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Liturgical language and sample of Lord's Prayer

File:1 John 4.8 in Western Neo-Aramaic.jpg
1 John 4:8 in Western Neo-Aramaic.

The Lord's Prayer in Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo Neo-Aramaic, Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) and Hebrew.

There are various versions of the Lord's Prayer in Western Neo-Aramaic, incorporating altered loanwords from several languages, notably Arabic: Šēḏa (from Akk. šēdu, meaning "evil" or "devil"),[48] yiṯkan (from Ar. li-yakūn, meaning "that it may be" or "to be"), ġfurlēḥ & nġofrin (from Ar. yaghfir, meaning "to forgive"), maḥiṭ (from Ar. khaṭiʾa, meaning "to sin") and čaġribyōṯa (from Ar. jarīb or tajrība, meaning "temptation").[49]

Several decades ago, the Christian inhabitants of Maaloula began translating Christian prayers and texts into their vernacular Aramaic dialect, given that their actual liturgical languages are Arabic and Koine Greek.

Pastor Edward Robinson reported that his companion, Eli Smith, found several manuscripts in the Syriac language in Maaloula in 1834, but no one could read or understand them.[50] Classical Syriac, the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, was utilized as the liturgical language by local Syriac Melkite Christians following the Byzantine rite. There was a compilation of Syriac manuscripts from the monasteries and churches of Maaloula. However, a notable portion of these manuscripts met destruction upon the directives of a bishop in the 19th century.[51][52][53][54]

Western Neo-Aramaic Turoyo Neo-Aramaic Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) Hebrew
Ōboḥ/Ōbay/Abūnaḥ ti bišmō/bišmōya yičqattaš ešmaẖ Abuna d-këtyo bišmayo miqadeš ešmoḵ Aḇūn d-ḇa-šmayyāʾ neṯqaddaš šmāḵ Avinu šebašamayim yitkadeš šimḵa
yṯēle molkaẖ/malkuṯaẖ yiṯkan ti čbaҁēleh g-dëṯyo i malkuṯayḏoḵ howe u ṣebyonayḏoḵ tēṯēʾ malkūṯāḵ nēhwēʾ ṣeḇyānāḵ tavo malḵutḵa, ya'aseh retsonẖa
iẖmel bišmō/bišmōya ẖet ҁalarҁa. ḵud d'kit bi šmayo hawḵa bi arҁo ste ʾaykannāʾ d-ḇa-šmayyāʾ ʾāp̄ b-ʾarʿāʾ. kevašamayim ken ba'arets.
Aplēḥ leḥmaḥ uẖẖil yōmaḥ Haw lan u laḥmo d-sniquṯayḏan adyawma Haḇ lan laḥmāʾ d-sūnqānan yawmānā Et leẖem ẖukenu ten lanu hayom
ġfurlēḥ ḥṭiyōṯaḥ eẖmil wa šbaq lan a-ḥṭohayḏan ḵud d-aḥna ste wa-šḇōq lan ḥawbayn wa-ḥṭāhayn uselaẖ lanu al ẖata'enu
nġofrin lti maḥiṭ ҁemmaynaḥ sbaq lan lanek laf elan ʾaykanāʾ d-āp̄ ḥnan šḇaqn l-ḥayāḇayn kefi šesolẖim gam anaẖnu laẖot'im lanu
wlōfaš ttaẖlennaḥ bčaġribyōṯa w lo maҁbret lan l'nesyuno w-lāʾ taʿlan l-nesyōnāʾ ve'al tavienu lide nisayon
bes ḥaslannaḥ m-šēḏa elo mfaṣay lan mu bišo ʾelāʾ paṣān men bīšāʾ ki im ẖaltsenu min hara

Miscellaneous words and sample phrases[55][56]

English Western Neo-Aramaic
Hello/Peace šlōma
Altar server šammōša
Morning ʕṣofra/emḥar
Mountain ṭūra
Water mōya
God alō (defined)/ilōha (undefined)
Sun šimša
Mouth femma
Head rayša
Village qriṯa
I swear (by the Cross) b'sliba
Nice ḥalya
Here/Here it is ḥōxa/ḥōxa hū
Liar daklōna
After bōṯar min
Son ebra
Daughter berča
Brother/Brothers ḥōna/ḥunō, ḥunū(ya)
Sister ḥōṯa
Donkey ḥmōra
Tongue/Language liššōna
Money kiršō (from Akk. "kīršu")
Nation ōmṯa
Year ešna
Moon ṣahra
King malka
Earth arʕa
Dove yawna
Long live! tiḥi!
Grave qabra
Food xōla
(Paternal) Uncle ḏōḏa
(Maternal) Uncle ḥōla
(Paternal) Aunt ʕamṯa
(Maternal) Aunt ḥōlča
Father ōbu
Mother emma
My mother emmay (lit. "my mothers", archaic phrase)
Grandfather žetta
Grandmother žičča
Way tarba
Sea yamma
Congratulations! ibrex!
Aramean (Syriac) sūray
Sky šmōya/šmō
Who? mōn?
Love rḥmōṯa
Kiss nōšqṯa
How are you? ex čōb? (m)/ex čiba? (f)
Fast ṣawma
Human barnōša
Holy Spirit ruḥa qutšō
Poison samma
Sword seyfa
Bone ġerma
Blood eḏma
Half felka
Skin ġelta
Hunger xafna
Stone/Rock xefa
Vineyard xarma
Back ḥaṣṣa
Goat ʕezza
Lip sefta
Chin/Beard ḏeqna
Tooth/Crag šenna
Past zibnō
Queen malkṯa
The little man ġabrōna zʕōra
Peace to all of you šlōma lxulḥun
Who is this? mōn hanna? (m)/mōn hōḏ? (f)
I am Aramean (Syriac) and my language is Aramaic (Syriac) ana sūray w liššōni siryōn
We are Arameans (Syriacs) and our language is Aramaic (Syriac) anaḥ suroy w liššonaḥ siryōn
Church klēsya (Greek loanword)
Shirt qameṣča (from lat. "camisia")
What's your name? (m) mō ušmax? (m)/mō ušmiš (f)
Dream ḥelma
Old man sōba

Gallery

Script error: No such module "Gallery".

See also

Literature

  • Arnold, Werner: Das Neuwestaramäische (Western Neo-Aramaic), 6 volumes. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden (Semitica Viva 4),
    • Volume 1: Texte aus Baxʿa (Texts from Baxʿa), 1989, ISBN 3-447-02949-8,
    • Volume 2: Texte aus Ğubbʿadīn (Texts from Ğubbʿadīn), 1990, ISBN 3-447-03051-8,
    • Volume 3: Volkskundliche Texte aus Maʿlūla (Texts of folk tradition from Maʿlūla), 1991, ISBN 3-447-03166-2,
    • Volume 4: Orale Literatur aus Maʿlūla (Oral Literature from Maʿlūla), 1991, ISBN 3-447-03173-5,
    • Volume 5: Grammatik (Grammar), 1990, ISBN 3-447-03099-2,
    • Volume 6: Wörterbuch (Dictionary), 2019, ISBN 978-3-447-10806-5,
  • Arnold, Werner. 1990. New materials on Western Neo-Aramaic. In Wolfhart Heinrichs (ed.), Studies in Neo-Aramaic, 131–149. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press.
  • Arnold, Werner. 2002. Neue Lieder aus Maʿlūla. In Werner Arnold & Hartmut Bobzin (eds.), „Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!” 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik. Festschrift für Otto Jastrow zum 60. Geburtstag., 31–52. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
  • Arnold, Werner: Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen (A Manual to Western Neo-Aramaic), Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1989, ISBN 3-447-02910-2.
  • Arnold, Werner. 2008. The begadkephat in Western Neo-Aramaic. In Geoffrey Khan (ed.), Neo-Aramaic dialect studies, 171–176. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463211615-011.
  • Arnold, Werner. 2011. Western Neo-Aramaic. In Stefan Weninger, Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck & Janet C. E. Watson (eds.), The Semitic languages. An international handbook, 685–696. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110251586.685.
  • Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1915. Neuaramäische Märchen und andere Texte aus Maʿlūla. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/publicdomain/content/titleinfo/857071.
  • Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1918. Neue Texte im aramäischen Dialekt von Maʿlula. In Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, vol. 32, 103–163. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/titleinfo/118493.
  • Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1928. Einführung in die semitischen Sprachen. Sprachproben und grammatische Skizzen. Munich: Max Hueber. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/publicdomain/content/titleinfo/597992.
  • Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1933. Phonogramme im neuaramäischen Dialekt von Malula. Satzdruck und Satzmelodie. Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  • Correll, Christoph. 1978. Untersuchungen zur Syntax der neuwestaramäischen Dialekte des Antilibanon: (Maʿlūla, Baḫʿa, ǦubbʿAdīn); mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Auswirkungen arabischen Adstrateinflusses; nebst zwei Anhängen zum neuaramäischen Dialekt von ǦubbʿAdīn. (Abhandlungen Für Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes 44/4). Wiesbaden: Steiner.
  • Eid, Ghattas. 2024. The Phonology of Maaloula Aramaic. Düsseldorf: Düsseldorf University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111447124.
  • Eid, Ghattas & Ingo Plag. 2024. Syllable structure and syllabification in Maaloula Aramaic. Lingua 297. 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2023.103612.
  • Eid, Ghattas, Esther Seyffarth & Ingo Plag. 2022. The Maaloula Aramaic Speech Corpus (MASC): From printed material to a lemmatized and time-aligned corpus. In Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2022), 6513–6520. Marseille. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2022/pdf/2022.lrec-1.699.pdf.
  • Reich, Sigismund. 1937. Études sur les villages araméens de l’Anti-Liban (Documents d’Études Orientales 7). Damascus: Institut Français de Damas.
  • Spitaler, Anton. 1938. Grammatik des neuaramäischen Dialekts von Maʿlūla (Antilibanon). Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus. http://dx.doi.org/10.25673/36802.
  • Spitaler, Anton. 1957. Neue Materialien zum aramäischen Dialekt von Maʿlūla. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 107(2). 299–339.
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Notes

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References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Western Neo-Aramaic: The Dialect of Jubaadin , p. 446
  4. ↑ Maaloula (XIXe-XXIe siècles). Du vieux avec du neuf, p. 95
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Kremer, Alfred von (1853). Mittelsyrien und Damascus: geschichtliche, ethnografische und geografische Studien während eines Aufenthaltes daselbst in den Jahren 1849, 1850 u. 1851. p. 196.
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Studies in the Grammar and Lexicon of Neo-Aramaic by Geoffrey Khan, Paul M. Noorlander
  22. ↑ Studies in the Grammar and Lexicon of Neo-Aramaic, Geoffrey Khan, Paul M. Noorlander
  23. ↑ Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar - p. 464
  24. ↑ Brockelmann (GVG 1 §19)
  25. ↑ Akkadian influences on Aramaic (Assyriological Studies) by Kaufman, Stephan A.
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, p.308
  30. ↑ Parisot, Jean (1898a, "Le dialecte de Maʕlula. Grammaire, vocabulaire et textes.", p. 270):"D'áprès leurs traditions, ġaddan ʕan ġaddin, les habitants de ce village et des lieux avoisinants raient des émigrés du pays de Sendjar. Ils disent qu'à une époque ancienne, urs ancêtres voulant se soustraire aux vexations des musulmans qui avaient ivahi la partie septentrionale de la Mésopotamie, auraient traverse l'Euphrate le désert de la Palmyrène, pour se réfugier définitivement sur les hauts ateaux de la Syrie orientale, à trois cents lieues de leur pays d'origine."
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ Archived at GhostarchiveTemplate:Cbignore and the Wayback MachineTemplate:Cbignore: Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Template:Cbignore
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  38. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ Eid, Ghattas, Esther Seyffarth & Ingo Plag. 2022. The Maaloula Aramaic Speech Corpus (MASC): From printed material to a lemmatized and time-aligned corpus. In Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2022), 6513–6520. Marseille. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2022/pdf/2022.lrec-1.699.pdf.
  44. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  45. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  46. ↑ New Testament in Western Neo-Aramaic (Serta/Arabic)
  47. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Das Neuwestaramäische: Volkskundliche Texte aus Maʻlūla, p. 144
  50. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ "The west Syriac tradition covers the Syriac Orthodox, Maronite, and Melkite churches, though the Melkites changed their Church's rite to that of Constantinople in the 9th-11th centuries, which required new translations of all its liturgical books.", quote from the book The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, p.917
  54. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  55. ↑ Das Neuwestaramäische Wörterbuch: Neuwestaramäisch von Werner Arnold, The Western Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Western Neo-Aramaic by Werner Arnold
  56. ↑ Ghattas Eid - The Phonology of Maaloula Aramaic

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Sources

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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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External links

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