Japanese pronouns

Template:Short description Template:Multiple issues Japanese are words in the Japanese language used to address or refer to present people or things, where present means people or things that can be pointed at. The position of things (far away, nearby) and their role in the current interaction (goods, addresser, addressee, bystander) are features of the meaning of those words. The use of pronouns, especially when referring to oneself and speaking in the first person, vary between gender, formality, dialect and region where Japanese is spoken.

According to some Western grammarians, pronouns are not a distinct part of speech in Japanese, but a subclass of nouns, since they behave grammatically just like nouns.Template:Efn Among Japanese grammarians, whether pronouns should be considered a distinct has varied. Some considered them distinct,Template:Efn while others thought they were only nouns.Template:Efn The of today has followed Iwabuchi Etsutarō's model, which does not recognize pronouns as a distinct part of speech, but merely a subclass of nouns (see Template:Slink).

Use and etymology

In contrast to present people and things, absent people and things can be referred to by naming; for example, by instantiating a class, "the house" (in a context where there is only one house) and presenting things in relation to the present, named and sui generis people or things can be "I'm going home", "I'm going to Hayao's place", "I'm going to the mayor's place", "I'm going to my mother's place" or "I'm going to my mother's friend's place". Functionally, deictic classifiers not only indicate that the referenced person or thing has a spatial position or an interactional role but also classify it to some extent. In addition, Japanese pronouns are restricted by a situation type (register): who is talking to whom about what and through which medium (spoken or written, staged or in private). In that sense, when a male is talking to his male friends, the pronoun set that is available to him is different from those available when a man of the same age talks to his wife and, vice versa, when a woman talks to her husband. These variations in pronoun availability are determined by the register.

In linguistics, generativists and other structuralists suggest that the Japanese language does not have pronouns as such, since, unlike pronouns in most other languages that have them, these words are syntactically and morphologically identical to nouns. As functionalists point out, however, these words function as personal references, demonstratives, and reflexives, just as pronouns do in other languages.

Japanese has a large number of pronouns, differing in use by formality, gender, age, and relative social status of speaker and audience. Further, pronouns are an open class, with existing nouns being used as new pronouns with some frequency. This is ongoing; a recent example is , which is now used by some young men as a casual first-person pronoun.

Pronouns are used less frequently in the Japanese language than in many other languages, mainly because there is no grammatical requirement to include the subject in a sentence. That means that pronouns can seldom be translated from English to Japanese on a one-to-one basis.

The common English personal pronouns, such as "I", "you", and "they", have no other meanings or connotations. However, most Japanese personal pronouns do. Consider for example two words corresponding to the English pronoun "I": Template:Nihongo krt also means "private" or "personal". Template:Nihongo krt carries a masculine impression; it is typically used by males, especially those in their youth.

Japanese words that refer to other people are part of the encompassing system of honorific speech and should be understood within that context. Pronoun choice depends on the speaker's social status (as compared to the listener's) as well as the sentence's subjects and objects.

The first-person pronouns (e.g., Template:Nihongo krt) and second-person pronouns (e.g., Template:Nihongo krt) are used in formal contexts (however the latter can be considered rude). In many sentences, pronouns that mean "I" and "you" are omitted in Japanese when the meaning is still clear.

When it is required to state the topic of the sentence for clarity, the particle Template:Nihongo krt is used, but it is not required when the topic can be inferred from context. Also, there are frequently used verbs that imply the subject and/or indirect object of the sentence in certain contexts: means "give" in the sense that "somebody other than me gives something to me or to somebody very close to me". also means "give", but in the sense that "someone gives something to someone other than me". This often makes pronouns unnecessary, as they can be inferred from context.

In sentences comprising a single adjective (often those ending in ), it is often assumed that the speaker is the subject. For example, the adjective can represent a complete sentence that means "I am lonely". When speaking of another person's feelings or emotions, would be used instead. Similarly, , as opposed to when referring to others. Thus, the first-person pronoun is usually not used unless the speaker wants to put a special stress on the fact that they are referring to themselves or if it is necessary to make it clear.

In some contexts, it may be considered uncouth to refer to the listener (second person) by a pronoun. If it is required to state the second person, the listener's surname, suffixed with or some other title (like "customer", "teacher", or "boss"), is generally used.

Gender differences in spoken Japanese also create another challenge, as men and women refer to themselves with different pronouns. Social standing also determines how people refer to themselves, as well as how they refer to other people.

Most common Japanese first-person pronouns by speakers and situations according to Yuko Saegusa (2009):

First-person pronouns by elementary school pupils (2008)

Speaker	Situation	First	Second	Third
Female	To friends	49%	First name 26%	15%
	In the family	First name 33%	29%	23%
	In a class	86%	7%	6%
	To an unknown visitor	75%	, first name, 8% each
	To the class teacher	66%	First name 13%	9%
Male	To friends	72%	19%	First name 4%
	In the family	62%	23%	Others (not including ) 9%
	In a class	85%	13%	First name, nickname 1% each
	To an unknown visitor	64%	26%	First name 4%
	To the class teacher	67%	27%	First name 3%

First-person pronouns by university students (2009)

Speaker	Situation	First	Second	Third
Female	To friends	39%	30%	22%
	In the family	28%	First name 27%	18%
	In a class	89%	7%	3%
	To an unknown visitor	81%	10%	6%
	To the class teacher	77%	17%	7%
Male	To friends	87%	4%	, 2% each
	In the family	88%	, 5% each
	In a class	48%	28%	22%
	To an unknown visitor	36%	29%	22%
	To the class teacher	38%	29%	22%

List of Japanese personal pronouns

The list is incomplete, as there are numerous Japanese pronoun forms, which vary by region and dialect. This is a list of the most commonly used forms. "It" has no direct equivalent in Japanese (though in some contexts the demonstrative pronoun is translatable as "it"). Also, Japanese does not generally inflect by case, so, I is equivalent to me.

Romaji and pronunciation	Hiragana	Kanji	Level of speech	Gender	Notes
first-person singular (I/me)
watashi	わたし	私	formal/informal	both	In formal or polite contexts, this is gender neutral; in casual speech, it is typically only used by women. Use by men in casual contexts may be perceived as stiff.
watakushi	わたくし	私	very formal	both	The most formal personal pronoun. Outdated curriculums did not provide for any other kind of pronoun in everyday speech for foreigners, except for watakushi. However, in modern student books, such a pronoun has been withdrawn from use.
ware	われ	我, 吾	very formal	both	Used in literary style writing. Also used as rude second person in western dialects.
waga	わが	我が	very formal	both	Means "my" or "our". Used in speeches and formalities; Template:Nihongo krt (our company) or Template:Nihongo krt (our country).
Template:Vanchor	おれ	俺	informal	males	Frequently used by men. Establishes a sense of "masculinity". Can be seen as rude depending on the context. Emphasises one's own status when used with peers and with those who are younger or of lesser status. Among close friends or family, its use conveys familiarity rather than "masculinity" or superiority. It was used also by women until the late Edo period and still is in some dialects. Also oi in Kyushu dialect.
Template:Vanchor	ぼく	僕	formal/informal	males	Used by males of all ages; very often used by boys; can be used by females but then carries tomboyish or feminist connotations. Perceived as humble, but can also carry an undertone of "feeling young" when used by males of older age. Also used when casually giving deference; "servant" uses the same kanji (). Can also be used as a second-person pronoun toward male children (English equivalent – "kid" or "squirt").
washi	わし	儂	formal/informal	mainly males	Often used in western dialects and fictional settings to stereotypically represent characters of old age. Also wai, a slang version of washi in the Kansai dialect.
jibun	じぶん	自分	neutral	mainly males	Literally "oneself"; used as either reflexive or personal pronoun. Can convey a sense of distance when used in the latter way. Also used as casual second-person pronoun in the Kansai dialect.
ore-sama	おれさま	俺様	informal	mainly (fictional) males	"My esteemed self", "Mr. I". Used in fiction by very self-important or arrogant characters, or humorously.
atai	あたい	私	very informal	females	Slang version of Template:Nihongo krt.
atashi	あたし	私	informal	females (but see notes)	A feminine pronoun that strains from Template:Nihongo krt. Rarely used in written language, but common in conversation, especially among younger women. It was formerly used by male members of the merchant and artisan classes in the Edo area and continues to be used by male rakugo performers.
atakushi	あたくし	私	informal	females	A feminine pronoun that strains from Template:Nihongo krt.
uchi	うち	家, 内	informal	mostly females	Means "one's own". Often used in western dialects especially the Kansai dialect. Generally written in kana. Plural form uchi-ra is used by both genders. Singular form is also used by both sexes when talking about the household, e.g., , ; also used in less formal business speech to mean "our company", e.g., ).
(own name)			informal	both	Used by small children and young women; considered cute and childish.
Template:Vanchor	おいら	俺等, 己等	informal	males	Similar to Template:Nihongo krt, but more casual. Evokes a person with a rural background, a "country bumpkin".
Template:Vanchor	おら	俺等	informal	both	Dialect in Kanto and further north. Similar to Template:Nihongo krt, but more rural. Also ura in some dialects.
wate	わて		informal	both	Dated Kansai dialect, shifted from watai. Also ate (somewhat feminine).
second-person singular (you)
(name and honorific)			formality depends on the honorific used	both
anata Template:Efn	あなた	貴方, 貴男, 貴女	formal/informal	both	The kanji are very rarely used. The only second-person pronoun comparable to English "you", yet still not used as often in this universal way by native speakers, as it can be considered having a condescending undertone, especially towards superiors.Template:Better source needed For expressing "you" in formal contexts, using the person's name with an honorific is more typical. More commonly, anata may be used when having no information about the addressed person; also often used as "you" in commercials, when not referring to a particular person. Furthermore, commonly used by women to address their husband or lover, in a way roughly equivalent to the English "dear".
anta	あんた	貴方	informal	both	Contraction of . Can express contempt, anger or familiarity towards a person. Generally seen as rude or uneducated when used in formal contexts.
otaku	おたく	お宅, 御宅	formal, polite	both	A polite way of saying "your house", also used as a pronoun to address a person with slight sense of distance. Otaku/otakki/ota turned into a slang term referring to a type of geek/obsessive hobbyist, as they often addressed each other as otaku.
omae ,Template:Efn omē	おまえ, おめえ	お前	very informal	both	Similar to anta, but used by men with more frequency. Expresses the speaker's higher status or age, or a very casual relationship among peers. Often used with . Very rude if said to elders. Commonly used by men to address their wife or lover, paralleling the female use of anata.
temē , temae	てめえ, てまえ	手前	rude and confrontational	mainly males	Literal meaning "the one in front of my hand". Temē, a reduction of temae, is more rude. Used when the speaker is very angry. Originally used for a humble first person. The Kanji are seldom used with this meaning, as unrelated to its use as a pronoun, 手前 can also mean "before", "this side", "one's standpoint" or "one's appearance".
kisama	きさま	貴様	extremely hostile and rude	mainly males	Historically very formal, but has developed in an ironic sense to show the speaker's extreme hostility / outrage towards the addressee.
kimi	きみ	君	informal	both	The kanji means "lord" (archaic) and is also used to write -kun. Informal to subordinates; can also be affectionate; formerly very polite. Among peers typically used with . Often seen as rude or assuming when used with superiors, elders or strangers.
kika	きか	貴下	informal, to a younger person	both
kikan	きかん	貴官	very formal, used to address government officials, military personnel, etc.	both
onsha	おんしゃ	御社	formal, used to the listener representing your company	both	Only used in spoken language.
kisha	きしゃ	貴社	formal, similar to onsha	both	Only used in written language as opposed to onsha.
third-person singular (he / she)
ano kata	あのかた	あの方	very formal	both	Sometimes pronounced ano hou, but with the same kanji. 方 means "direction", and is more formal by avoiding referring to the actual person in question.
ano hito	あのひと	あの人	neutral	both	Literally "that person".
yatsu	やつ	奴	informal	both	A thing (very informal), dude, guy.
koitsu , koyatsu	こいつ, こやつ	此奴	very informal, implies contempt	both	Denotes a person or material nearby the speaker. Analogous to "he/she" or "this one".
soitsu , soyatsu	そいつ, そやつ	其奴	very informal, implies contempt	both	Denotes a person or material nearby the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one".
aitsu , ayatsu	あいつ, あやつ	彼奴	very informal, implies contempt	both	Denotes a person or (less frequently) material far from both the speaker and the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one".
third-person singular masculine (he)
kare	かれ	彼	formal (neutral) and informal (boyfriend)	both	Can also mean "boyfriend". Formerly was its equivalent, but this now often means "boyfriend". Literally meaning "that one", in classical Japanese it could mean "he", "she", or "it".
third-person singular feminine (she)
kanojo	かのじょ	彼女	formal (neutral) and informal (girlfriend)	both	Originally created in the 19th century as an equivalent to female pronouns in European languages. Initially pronounced kano onna, it literally means "that female". Can also mean "girlfriend".
first-person plural (we) (see also list of pluralising suffixes, below)
ware-ware	われわれ	我々	formal	both	Mostly used when speaking on behalf of a company or group.
ware-ra	われら	我等	informal	both	Used in literary style. ware is never used with -tachi.
heisha	へいしゃ	弊社	formal and humble	both	Used when representing one's own company. From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "low company" or "humble company".
waga sha	わがしゃ	我が社	formal	both	Used when representing one's own company.
third-person plural (they) (see also list of pluralising suffixes, below)
kare-ra	かれら	彼等	common in spoken Japanese and writing	both

Job-related personal pronouns

Romaji and pronunciation	Hiragana	Kanji	Level of speech	Gender	Notes
first-person singular (I/me)
shōsei	しょうせい	小生	formal, written	males	Used among academic colleagues. Lit. "your pupil".
shōkan	しょうかん	小官	informal	both	Slightly old-fashioned pronoun that is used by military and government officials in a humble manner. Lit. "petty official".
honkan	ほんかん	本官	formal	both	Used by government officials or people working in the civil service. Rarely used nowadays, however it is sometimes used in fiction by police officers.
honshoku	ほんしょく	本職	formal	both	Used by public officials in their work. In statement records, this pronoun is used to indicate that the person taking the statement is a prosecutor or police officer depending on context.
shōshoku	しょうしょく	小職	informal	both	Traditionally used in public sector, usually by lower ranking occupants, however it isn't necessarily a hierarchical equivalent of "honshoku". It is incorrect to be used by someone who works at a private company, however lately it became more common.
henshū-shi	へんしゅうし	編集子	formal	both	Used in newspapers and articles by the editor when referring to themselves. 子 is often read as "ko", however in this context it is pronounced as "shi".
hissha	ひっしゃ	筆者	formal	both	First person pronoun used by authors to refer to themselves in novels and other literature. Lit. "author".
sakusha	さくしゃ	作者	formal	both	Another first person pronoun used by authors when referring to themselves.
sensei	せんせい	先生	formal	both	Used by elementary, middle, and high school teachers when speaking to students. It sometimes includes the family name. Doctors in the medical industry also use this pronoun when speaking to very young patients.
gusō	ぐそう	愚僧	informal	both	A humble pronoun used by monks, using third person to refer to oneself. Lit. "this foolish monk". This pronoun is well-known due to having been used by Shinran.
gutoku	ぐとく	愚禿	informal	both	A variant of gusō.
sessō	せっそう	拙僧	informal	both	Another humble pronoun being used by monks. Also uses third person to refer to oneself. Lit. "this unworthy monk".
tōkyoku	とうきょく	当局	formal	both	It is used between amateur radio operators. This pronoun is used in such due to the fact that the sender is the transmitting station.
second-person singular (you)
kikyoku	ききょく	貴局	formal	both	Used between amateur radio operators when referring to the other operator.

Archaic personal pronouns

Romaji and pronunciation	Hiragana	Kanji	Meaning	Level of speech	Gender	Notes
asshi	あっし	私	I		males	Slang version of watashi. From the Edo period.
sessha	せっしゃ	拙者	I		males	Used by samurai during the feudal ages (and often also by ninja in fictionalised portrayals). From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "one who is clumsy".
wagahai	わがはい	我(が)輩, 吾(が)輩	I		males	Literally "my fellows; my class; my cohort", but used in a somewhat pompous manner as a first-person singular pronoun.
soregashi	それがし	某	I		males	Literally "So-and-so", a nameless expression. Similar to sessha.
warawa	わらわ	妾	I		females	Literally "child". Mainly used by women in samurai families. Today, it is used in fictional settings to represent archaic noble female characters.
wachiki	わちき		I		females	Used by geisha and oiran in Edo period. Also and .
yo Template:Efn	よ	余, 予	I		males	Archaic first-person singular pronoun.
chin	ちん	朕	We		both	Used only by the Emperor, mostly before World War II.
maro	まろ	麻呂, 麿	I		males	Used as a universal first-person pronoun in ancient times. Today, it is used in fictional settings to represent Court noble male characters.
onore	おのれ	己	I or you		males	The word onore, as well as the kanji used to transcribe it, literally means "oneself". It is humble when used as a first-person pronoun and hostile (on the level of Template:Nihongo krt or Template:Nihongokrt) when used as a second-person pronoun.
kei	けい	卿	you		males	Second-person pronoun, used mostly by males. Used among peers to denote light respect, and by a superior addressing his subjects and retainers in a familiar manner. Like Template:Nihongo krt, this can also be used as an honorific (pronounced as Template:Nihongo krt), in which case it's equivalent to "lord/lady" or "sir/dame".
nanji	なんじ	汝, less commonly also 爾	you, often translated as "thou"		both	Spelled as Template:Nihongo krt in the most ancient texts and later as Template:Nihongo krt or Template:Nihongo krt.
onushi	おぬし	御主, お主	you		both	Used by elders and samurai to talk to people of equal or lower rank. Literally means "master".
sonata	そなた	其方 (rarely used)	you		both	Originally a mesial deictic pronoun meaning "that side; that way; that direction"; used as a lightly respectful second-person pronoun in previous eras, but now used when speaking to an inferior in a pompous and old-fashioned tone.
sochi	そち	其方 (rarely used)	you		both	Similar to Template:Nihongo krt. Literally means "that way". (Sochira and kochira, sometimes shortened to sotchi and kotchi, are still sometimes used to mean roughly "you" and "I, we", e.g. kochira koso in response to thanks or an apology means literally "this side is the one" but idiomatically "no, I (or we) thank/apologise to you"; especially common on the telephone, analogous to phrases like "on this end" and "on your end" in English. Kochira koso is often translated as "me/us, too" or "likewise" – it is certainly a reciprocation gesture, but sometimes a little more.)

Suffixes

Suffixes are added to pronouns to make them plural.

Romaji	Hiragana	Kanji	Level of speech	Notes
tachi	たち	達	informal; examples: Template:Nihongo krt Template:Nihongo krt Template:Nihongo krt Template:Nihongo krt	Also can be attached to names to indicate that person and the group they are with (Ryuichi-tachi = "Ryuichi and friends").
kata, gata	かた, がた	方	formal (e.g. Template:Nihongo krt)	More polite than Template:Nihongo krt. gata is the rendaku form.
domo	ども	共	humble (e.g. Template:Nihongo krt)	Casts some aspersion on the mentioned group, so it can be rude. domo is the rendaku form.
ra	ら	等	informal (e.g. Template:Nihongo krt. Template:Nihongo krt. Template:Nihongo krt. Template:Nihongo krt)	Used with informal pronouns. Frequently used with hostile words. Sometimes used for light humble as domo (e.g. Template:Nihongo krt).

Demonstrative and interrogative pronouns

Demonstrative words, whether functioning as pronouns, adjectives or adverbs, fall into four groups. Words beginning with ko- indicate something close to the speaker (so-called proximal demonstratives). Those beginning with so- indicate separation from the speaker or closeness to the listener (medial), while those beginning with a- indicate greater distance (distal). Interrogative words, used in questions, begin with do-.

Demonstratives are normally written in hiragana.

Romaji and pronunciation	Hiragana	Kanji	Meaning
kore	これ	此れ	this thing / these things (close to the 1st person)
sore	それ	其れ	that thing / those things (close to the 2nd person)
are	あれ	彼れ	that thing / those things (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)
dore	どれ	何れ	which thing(s)?
kochira , kotchi	こちら, こっち	此方	this / here (close to the 1st person)
sochira , sotchi	そちら, そっち	其方	that / there (close to the 2nd person)
achira , atchi	あちら, あっち	彼方	that / there (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)
dochira , dotchi	どちら, どっち	何方	what / where

When a Japanese speaker uses ko-, so- and a- forms, they are not necessarily considering spatial distance, but also psychological, temporal and topical distance.

For more forms, see Japanese demonstratives on Wiktionary.

Other interrogative pronouns include Template:Nihongo krt and Template:Nihongo krt.

Reflexive

Japanese has only one word corresponding to reflexive pronouns such as myself, yourself, or themselves in English. The word means "one's self" and may be used for some animals, including humans. It is not used for cold-blooded animals or inanimate objects.Template:Better source needed

Old Japanese pronouns

Each Old Japanese pronoun has a "long" form that ends in -re, and a "short" form without -re. When combining with a genitive particle, the short forms of personal pronouns, as well as animate nouns, notably combined only with ga, while demonstratives (ko, so, (k)a) and inanimate nouns combined with no, only with ga in limited circumstances; in contrast, modern Japanese pronouns (many of which were originally nouns) and nouns only combine with no. The short forms are used with ga and in compounds, while the long forms are used independently.

Old Japanese personal pronouns

Person	Long form	Short form	Genitive form
1st	(w)are "I/me"	(w)a	(w)a-ga "my/mine"
2nd	nare "thou/thee"	na	na-ga "thy/thine"
3rd		si	si-ga "his/her(s)"
	tare "who(m)"	ta	ta-ga "whose"

Of these, tare evolved into modern dare, whose genitive form is simply dare-no. Ta-ga is sometimes used for literary effect, for example in the Japanese title of . Ware is often used in fiction, and wa-ga in fixed expressions, such as Template:Nihongo krt.

Genitive forms, when combining with a noun that began in a vowel, may fuse with it. For example, wa-ga "my" + imo "sister" → wa-gimo "my sister"; wa-ga + ipe₁ "house" → wa-gipe₁ "my house" (wa-gie in modern Japanese).

Old Japanese demonstratives

Type	Long form	Short form	Genitive form
Proximal (close to the 1st person)	kore	ko	ko-no
Mesial (close to the 2nd person)	sore	so	so-no
Distal (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)	kare	ka	ka-no

These demonstratives largely survived intact into modern Japanese. Kare came to be used as a gender-neutral third-person personal pronoun, and eventually used to translate masculine third-person pronouns specifically in European languages ("he/him"), while ka-no was used to create kanojo and to translate feminine pronouns ("she/her").

The modern pronouns kanojo and kareshi

The third-person feminine pronoun, , had not existed until sometime around the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the beginning of the Meiji era. Prior to this, the distal demonstrative pronoun was used as a gender-neutral personal pronoun.

彼女 started out as a mere shortened spelling of the phrase , which could be spelt in full as 彼（か）の女（をんな）, literally simply means "that female person", and is composed of the genitive form of kare, ka-no, and the noun wonna (now onna). Although not being a pronoun in a lexicographic sense, this phrase can be used pronominally like modern expressions such as or for the singular "they/them", for "he/him", and of course, for "she/her". The pronunciation of this phrase was consistently listed as across various pronunciation dictionaries for elementary students during the Meiji era.Template:Efn The earliest exception was the 1876 dictionary by 田中𦤺知, which listed .Template:Efn It has been suggested that the editor may have simply used ka-no zyo (now kanojo) for novelty back when was still commonly used as a free noun. This unique pronunciation was listed in a few later dictionaries.Template:Efn The same aforementioned dictionaries and more also listed ,Template:EfnTemplate:Efn and .Template:Efn

The phrase ka-no wonna (and its alternative ka-no zyo) rose to prominence due to Meiji writers' need to translate third-person feminine pronouns in European languages, such as she and her in English or elle and elles in French, which they eventually incorporated into their own writings. An 1871 French-Japanese dictionary translated elle as , and elles as ; an 1885 English-Japanese dictionary translated her as , herself as , and she as . In contrast, masculine pronouns such as heTemplate:Efn/himTemplate:Efn/his,Template:Efn ilTemplate:Efn/ils,Template:Efn etc. were translated with and .

Kanojo, as a lexicalized pronoun, was first attested in literature in its written furigana-glossed form as in the 1885 novel by Tsubouchi Shōyō. Meanwhile, Sudō Nansui (Mitsuaki) used and in his 1887 novel ; and Futabatei Shimei used in his novel Ukigumo published in the same year. As a phrase, ka-no wonna/ka-no zyo referred to female non-relatives, but as a pronoun, kanojo came to be used for female family members in literature, for example by Natsume Sōseki in his 1912 novel , where a character refers to his mother as ;Template:Efn the regular phrase still occurs in reference to a different woman. At this point, the phrase ka-no wonna and the pronoun kanojo/kanodyo coexisted with different usages even in the same work. Kanojo eventually acquired its status as a lexicalized noun meaning "girlfriend" during the late Taishō era.

The third-person masculine pronoun was coined during the early Shōwa era as an alternative to the once-gender-neutral and as the opposite to the feminine . Its first written attestation as a pronoun is attributed to Tokugawa Musei's 1929 essay collection ; as a noun meaning "boyfriend", to Nagai Kafū's 1934 novel . Morphologically, is composed of the aforementioned demonstrative-turned-personal pronoun and , the latter of which is an honorific suffix to names, mostly male names, and can be translated as "Mr." Kareshi was often used in a tongue-in-cheek way; compare the masculine and self-aggrandizing , which also consists of a pronoun () and an honorific suffix ().

See also

• Gender differences in spoken Japanese
• Japanese honorifics

External links

• Japan Reference: Personal pronouns in Japanese
• sci.lang.japan FAQ: Japanese pronouns