Umma

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Template:Infobox ancient site

File:Sumer map.jpg
Location of the city of Umma in Sumer

Umma (Template:Langx)[1] in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site.[2] Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been suggested that it was located at Umm al-Aqarib, less than Script error: No such module "convert". to its northwest or was even the name of both cities.[3][4] One or both were the leading city of the Early Dynastic kingdom of Gišša, with the most recent excavators putting forth that Umm al-Aqarib was prominent in EDIII but Jokha rose to preeminence later. The town of KI.AN was also nearby.[5] KI.AN, which was destroyed by Rimush, a ruler of the Akkadian Empire. There are known to have been six gods of KI.AN including Gula KI.AN and Sara KI.AN.[6]

The tutelary gods of Umma were Sara and Ninura. It is known that the ED ruler Ur-Lumma built, a temple to the god Enki-gal and one to the god Nagar-pa'e at Umma.[7]

In the early Sumerian literary composition Inanna's Descent into the Underworld, Inanna dissuades demons from the netherworld from taking Shara, patron of Umma, who was living in squalor.[8]

History

The site was occupied at least as far back as the Uruk period. A number of proto-cuneiform came from there. While most early textual sources are from Early Dynastic III, a few tablets and a plaque from ED I/II came from there.[9]

Early Dynastic period

File:Imprisoned man of Umma on the Stele of the Vultures.jpg
Imprisoned man of Umma on the Stele of the Vultures

Because the two sites were not excavated until modern times, based on the many looted texts available to them, earlier archaeologists grouped together the ancient cities during the Early Dynastic period of Gišša and Umma into the single geographic name of Umma. Modern excavation at these sites has clarified that.[2] Gišša ceased occupation after the ED and only one ruler is known, based on a lapis lazuli bead reading "To the goddess Inanna, Aka, king of Gišša (dedicated this bead)".[7]

Best known for its long frontier conflict with Lagash, as reported c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". by Entemena,[10][11] the city reached its zenith c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters"., under the rule of Lugal-Zage-Si who also controlled Ur and Uruk.

Sargonic period

File:Gutian inscription-AO 4783-gradient.jpg
An Early Dynastic inscription of Lugalannatum from Umma (Collection of the Louvre Museum)

Under the Akkadian Empire Umma was a major power and economic center rivaled only by Adab and Uruk.[12][13][14] Eleven governors under Akkad are known as well as two who may have been under Gutium. One, Lu-Utu, reports building a temple for Ninhursag and another for Ereshkigal. Namahni, a governor from the time of Iarlagan of Gutium, records building the E-ula temple of Ninura.[15][16] The Sargonic period ruler of Umma Lugalanatum built the temple E-gidru there.

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"Lugalannatum prince of Umma... built the E.GIDRU [Sceptre] Temple at Umma, buried his foundation deposit [and] regulated the orders. At that time, Si'um was king of Gutium."[16]

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A cuneiform text lays out the adjudication of a boundary dispute between Adab and Umma by Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2255–2218 BC). It lists the governor under Akkad of Umma as Šubur-Nagarpae and the governor of Adab as Lugal-ša. This is the first attestation of both. The decision was witnessed by the "city elders" of Adab, Tallani, Ibrat, and Pašime.[17][18]

Ur III period

File:Clay tablet. Delivery certificate. Reign of Shu-Sin of Ur, 21st century BCE. From Umma, Iraq. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin.jpg
Clay tablet. Delivery certificate. Reign of Shu-Sin of Ur, 21st century BCE. From Umma, Iraq. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin.

Under the Ur III dynasty, Umma became an important provincial center The Ur III Umma province consisted of four districts, Da-Umma, Apisal, Gu’edena, and Mušbiana.[19] It is known from archive that the economy of Umma was about 1/3 the size of nearby Lagash province.[20] Several governors of Umma under Ur are known, Aa-kala, Dadaga, and Ur-Lisi, all sons of one Ur-Nigar, and Ninbilia, wife of Aa-kala.[21][22][23] Most of the over 30,000 tablets recovered from the site are administrative and economic texts from that time.[24] They permit an excellent insight into affairs in Umma.[25] A year name of Ur III ruler Shu-Sin was "Year Shu-Sin the king of Ur built the temple of Shara in Umma". The next ruler Ibbi-Sin also had a year name of "Year Ibbi-Sin the king of Ur built the temple of Shara in Umma". The Umma calendar of Shulgi (c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".) is the immediate predecessor of the later Babylonian calendar, and indirectly of the post-exilic Hebrew calendar.

In the following Isin-Larsa period, a ruler of Larsa, Sumuel (c.Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". 1894-1866 BC), lists as one of his later year names "Year Umma was destroyed".

Archaeology

Tell Jokha

File:Aerial view of Umma, following pillage after the US invasion 1.jpg
Aerial view of Umma

Also called Tell Djokha and Tell Yokha.[26][27] The site of Tell Jokha was visited by William Loftus in 1854 and John Punnett Peters of the University of Pennsylvania in 1885. Peters found it to be half covered with sand dunes and found fragments of worked stone and copper fragments.[28][29] In the early 1900s, many illegally excavated Umma tablets began to appear on the antiquities market.[30] Many of these tablets used an unusual "mul-iti" dating system (year x, month y, day z) from the reigns of Akkadian Empire rulers Naram-Sin and Shar-kali-shari.[31][32][33] From 1999 to 2002 Jokha, already heavily looted, was worked by an Iraqi team led by Nawala Ahmed Al-Mutawalli, recovering a number of tablets and bullae from the Early Dynastic, Sargonic, Ur III, and Old Babylonian periods as well as an Ur III period temple and Old Babylonian residences.[34][35][4]The cuneiform tablets are in the process of being published.[36][37][38]

On the northern end of the main mound the Ešagepadda temple of Shara (Šara), primary deity of Umma, was found. Preparations for the temple construction began in the last year of Amar-Sin and the temple was finished in the 8th year of Shu-Sin. It is known that a "Ešagepada of Umma (ĜIŠ.KUŠU₂ki)" existed in the early Akkadian Empire period though no trace has been found. The large mudbrick temple was 90 meters by 130 meters with a 6 meter thick exterior wall. The exterior wall had buttresses, recesses, and two entrances. The main temple courtyard measured 42 meters by 30 meters. Artifacts found dated primarily to the Ur III and the Early Old Babylonian periods with a few from the Akkadian period. The temple was the findspot for all cuneiform tablets and bullae. A number of door sockets were found, some in situ.[39]

The site was visited around 1900 by archaeologist Walter Andrae who described the site as being 1000 meters long and 15 meters high with a small plateau to the north holding the remains of a 70 meter by 70 meter building,[40] The site was visited during a regional archaeological survey in 1967. The site was estimated to cover an area 150 meters in diameter. A surface survey showed "Late Early Dynastic and Old Babylonian are dominant in surface collections, but intervening Akkadian, Ur III, and Larsa periods also are well represented".[41]

In 2016, a team from the Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute led by Drahoslav Hulínek began excavations at Tell Jokha focusing on the Temple of Shara. A trench (Trench 1) excavated in 2016 showed the temple had two construction phases (Level 3 and 4). Level 4 is thought to date from the Old Akkadian period. In 2017 a square at the top (Trench 2) of the tell was opened, amidst numerous looter holes, and at Level 5 found Early Dynastic construction. In 2019 and 2020 eighteen cuneiform tablets from the Old Babylonian, Ur III, Old Akkadian and Early Dynastic periods were found in Trench 2, three in situ. A topographic survey showed that in the Early Dynastic period Umma reached an area of 400 hectares, with a 40 hectare city center.[42][43][44]

Umm al-Aqarib (Gišša)

File:Map Umma Louvre AO5677.jpg
Map of a property belonging to the city of Ur III Umma, indicating the acreage of each parcel

The site of Umm al-Aqarib (located at 45.80°E longitude and 31.60°N latitude) lies about 6 kilometers southeast of Tell Jokha, covers about 5 square kilometers and is made up of 21 mounds the largest of which is 20 meters above the level of the plain. It is thought to be the ancient city of Gišša and was abandoned after the Early Dynastic period. The location was first visited by John Punnett Peters in the late 1800s, finding it relatively free from sand and featuring two prominent elevations of baked bricks set with bitumen.[29] It was excavated for a total of 7 seasons in 1999–2002 (led by Donny George Youkhanna and Haider A. Urebi) and 2008–2010 (led by Taha Kerim Abod) under difficult conditions.[45][46] Excavation was triggered by widespread looting at the site. Looting has continued.[47] At Umm al-Aqarib, archaeologists uncovered levels from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2300 BC), including residences, palaces, and several monumental buildings, including two Early Dynastic temples (the White Temple and Temple H). About 70 "cuneiform sources" were also excavated.[48][49][50][51] The tutelary god is thought to be Ama-ušumgal-ana.[52] Uruk period clay cone mosaics have also been found at the site.[41]

Tell Shmet

File:Stone tablet re Il, king of Umma, c. 2400 BC - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07155.JPG
Stone tablet re Il, king of Umma, c. 2400 BC "For ..., Il, king of Umma, son of Eandamu, grandson of Enakale king of Umma, built his/her temple"

The site of Tell Shmet (also Tell Schmidt and Tell Shmid) also lies nearby, around 10 kilometers to the northwest of Umma and within visual distance of Zabala. It is on the banks of the eastern branch of the Euphrates river just above the canal leading to Zabala. It was part of the Umma province in the Ur III period. The site measures 990 by 720 meters (712,800 square meters). The main Sargonic and Ur III remains of the site were destroyed by a Ministry of Agriculture program to plant trees so as to prevent sand dunes. In response to looting which began in 1994 the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage conducted salvage excavations in 2001 and 2002 under Mohammad Sabri Abdulraheem.[53][54][55][56] All of the paper records of the excavation were lost in looting of residential areas after the 2003 war. Plano-convex bricks and a residential area of the Early Dynastic III and Akkadian periods were uncovered. Finds included 67 clay cuneiform tablets, dozens of cylinder seals, and a number of stone and metal objects. The tablets mostly date ED III with the latest being Ur III. The tablets support the proposal that the ancient name of the site was Ki.anki. They mention the names of the gods Ninazu and Dumuzi-Maru. Only six of the tablets have been published.[57] Uruk period clay cone mosaics have also been found at the site.[41]

Previous textual analysis had indicated that KI.AN was very near to Zabala.[58] During the reign of Rimush, second ruler of the Akkadian Empire, KI.AN, under its governor Lugal-KA, joined a regional revolt and was defeated.[59] In the Ur III period KI.AN had an ensi (governor). In that period it is known to have had a temple to the deified ruler Shulgi (called "e-dSulgi-ra") as well as temples to the gods Šara, Ninurra, Amarsuena, Geštinanna, Dumuzi, Gula, Ninlagaša, and Nine'e.[41][60][61]

Looting

During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, looters descended upon the sites of Tell Jokha and Tell Umm al-Aqarib which are now pockmarked with hundreds of ditches and pits. The prospects for future official excavation and research were seriously compromised in the process.[62] In 2011, Global Heritage Network, which monitors threats to cultural heritage sites in developing nations, released aerial images comparing Umma in 2003 and 2010, showing a landscape devastated by looters' trenches during that time—approximately 1.12 square km in total.[63] Confiscated Umma area cuneiform tablets continue to make their way to the Museum of Iraq, including a group of 1500 in 2009.[64]

List of rulers

Although the first dynasty of Umma has become well-known based on mentions in inscriptions contemporaneous with other dynasties from the Early Dynastic (ED) III period; it was not inscribed onto the Sumerian King List (SKL). The first dynasty of Umma preceded the dynasty of Akkad in a time in which Umma exercised considerable influence in the region. Only a single ruler (Lugal-zage-si) from Umma was named on the SKL; however, his name appears as the sole ruler for the third dynasty of Uruk. The following list should not be considered complete:

Portrait or inscription Ruler Approx. date and length of reign (Middle Chronology) Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Early Dynastic II period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2600 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
Predynastic Umma (c. Template:Trim – c. 2500 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
File:Ak gal-ukkin.jpg (Akinana) Uncertain; this ruler may have Template:Fl. sometime during the Early Dynastic (ED) period[65]
  • Historicity certain
  • Same person as Aga (?)
Early Dynastic IIIa period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2500 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
(Parasagnudi)
𒉺𒉈𒅍𒃲𒌇 		Uncertain; these two rulers may have Template:Fl. sometime during the ED IIIa period
(Eabzu)
Portrait or inscription Ruler Approx. date and length of reign (MC) Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2350 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
First dynasty of Umma / Umma I dynasty (c. Template:Trim – c. 2230 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
Pabilgagaltuku
𒉺𒉈𒅍𒃲𒌇 		Template:Reign
File:Imprisoned man of Umma on the Stele of the Vultures.jpg Ush ("Ninta")
𒍑 		Template:Reign
  • Historicity certain
  • Held the title of, "Governor of Umma"
  • temp. of Akurgal[65]
File:Enakalle on the plate of queen Bara-irnun.jpg Enakalle
𒂗𒀉𒆗𒇷 		Template:Reign
(8 years)
  • Historicity certain
  • Held the title of, "Governor of Umma"
  • temp. of Eannatum[67]
File:Ur-Lumma, king of Umma, son of En-a-Kale tablet.jpg Ur-Lumma
𒌨𒀭𒈝𒂷 		Template:Reign
(12 years)
  • Son of Enakalle
  • Held the title of, "Governor of Umma"
  • temp. of Enannatum I[67]
File:Stone tablet re Il, king of Umma, c. 2400 BC - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07155 (orientation).jpg Il
𒅍 		Template:Reign
(15 years)
  • Cousin of Ur-Lumma
  • Held the title of, "King of Umma"
  • temp. of Entemena[65]
File:This cuneiform text gives the city of Umma's account of its long-running border dispute with Lagash. Circa 2350 BCE. From Umma, Iraq. The British Museum, London.jpg Gishakidu
𒄑𒊮𒆠𒄭 		Template:Reign
(5 years)
Me'annedu Uncertain
(29 years)[66][68][69]
Ushurdu[66] Uncertain
(9 years)
Edin[66] Uncertain
(6 years)
File:Lugalzagesi king of Uruk king of the Land son of Ukush.jpg Ukush
𒌑𒌑 		Template:Reign
Proto-Imperial period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2230 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
File:Prisoner exiting a cage, on an Akkadian Empire victory stele circa 2300 BCE, Louvre Museum.jpg Lugal-zage-si
𒈗𒍠𒄀𒋛 		Template:Reign
(8 years)
Mese Template:Reign
Ennalum Uncertain
(6 years)
Shurushken Uncertain
Portrait or inscription Ruler Approx. date and length of reign (MC) Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Gutian period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2112 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
Second dynasty of Umma / Umma II dynasty (c. Template:Trim – c. 1866 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
File:Gutian inscription-AO 4783-gradient.jpg Lugalannatum
𒈗𒀭𒈾𒁺 		Template:Reign
Ur III period (c. Template:Trim – c. 2004 BCScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".)
Ur-Nigar Template:Reign
  • Son of Girini (?)
  • temp. of Shulgi
Ur-Lisi Template:Reign
(23 years)
  • Son of Ur-Nigar
Aa-kala Template:Reign
(9 years)
  • Brother of Ur-Lisi
Dadaga Template:Reign
(7 years)
  • Brother of Ayakalla
Ur-E'e Uncertain
  • Brother of Dadaga
Lu-Haya Uncertain
  • Son of Ur-E'e

Gallery

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See also

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References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  2. ↑ a b Lambert, Wilfred George, "The names of Umma.", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49.1, pp. 75-80, 1990
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ a b Almamori, H. O., "Gišša (Umm Al-Aqarib), Umma (Jokha), and Lagaš in the Early Dynastic III Period", Al-Rafidan 35, pp. 1–37, 2014
  5. ↑ Marek Stępień, "The Economic Status of Governors in Ur III Times: An Example of the Governor of Umma", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 64, pp. 17–30, 2012
  6. ↑ Peat, J. A., "An Offering - List from the Third Dynasty of Ur", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 19–22, 1975
  7. ↑ a b Frayne, Douglas, "G͂iša and Umma", Pre-Sargonic Period: Early Periods Volume 1 (2700-2350 BC), University of Toronto Press, pp. 357-368, 2008 Template:ISBN
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Uruk period proto-cuneiform tablets from Umma
  10. ↑ [1] Carrie Hritz, "The Umma-Lagash Border Conflict: A View from Above", The Umma-Lagash Border Conflict: A View from Above, From Sherds to Landscapes: Studies on the Ancient Near East in Honor of McGuire Gibson, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 71, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, pp. 109-130, 2021 Template:ISBN
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Zarins, Juris, "The Sharkallisharri Army of Umma: Linguistic, Historical and Archaeological Considerations", Aux marges de l’archéologie: hommage à Serge Cleuziou, pp. 187-213, 2012
  13. ↑ Lambert, Maurice., "La vie économique a Umma a l'époque d'Agadé", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 61–72, 1965
  14. ↑ Lambert, Maurice, "La vie économique a Umma a l'époque d'Agadé (Suite): Textes Justificatifs", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 115–26, 1965
  15. ↑ Foster., Benjamin R., "Archives and Record-keeping in Sargonic Mesopotamia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 1-27, 1982
  16. ↑ a b [2] Douglas R. Frayne, "Umma", The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 261-268, 1993 Template:ISBN
  17. ↑ Lafont, Bertrand, "Une plaque en argile portant une inscription de Naram-Sin d’Agadé", The Third Millennium. Brill, pp. 408-416, 2020
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  23. ↑ P. A. Parr, "Ninhilia: Wife of Ayakala, Governor of Umma", JCS 26, pp. 90 – 111, 1974
  24. ↑ [4] I. J. Gelb, "Sargonic Texts in the Louvre Museum", Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary 4, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1970 Template:ISBN
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ de la Fuÿe, Allotte, "Un cadastre de Djokha", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 12.1, pp. 47-54, 1915
  27. ↑ [5] Chiera, Edward, "Selected temple accounts from Telloh, Yokha and Drehem", University of Pennsylvania, 1921
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Georges Contenau, Contribution a l'Histoire Economique d'Umma, Librairie Champion, 1915
  31. ↑ [6]B. R. Foster, "Umma in the Sargonic Period", Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 20, Hamden, 1982
  32. ↑ Foster, Benjamin R., "New Light on the “mu-iti” Texts", Orientalia 48.2, pp. 153-162, 1979
  33. ↑ Marchesi, Gianni, "Two Delivery Records from Umma and Related Subjects", Orientalia, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 104–13, 1999
  34. ↑ Al-Mutawalli, N., "Excavation of Umma (modern Jokha), seasons 1 & 2.", Sumer 54, pp. 53-82, 2009
  35. ↑ Al-Harbi, H. Sh, N. A. Al-Mutawali, and K. M. Khaleel, "Jokha (Umma): The Excavation Results of the Third and Fourth Seasons (2001–2002)", Sumer 56, pp. 49-92, 2011
  36. ↑ Al-Mutawalli, N.. "Administrative Cuneiform Texts from Umma in the Iraq Museum Excavation of Shara Temple (1999–2000)", Sumer 55, pp. 45–86, 2010
  37. ↑ Mutawallī, Nawālah Aḥmad Maḥmūd al, et al., "Bullae from the Shara Temple= Wuṣūlāt at-tasallum (bulla) min maʿbad aš-Šārā. Cuneiform texts from the Iraqi excavations at Umma (Jokha)", Harrassowitz Verlag, 2019 Template:ISBN
  38. ↑ Al-Mutawalli, Nawala Ahmed, et al, "Bullae from the Main Tell: Documents of Umma’s Administration in the Early Old Babylonian Period. With a Contribution by Adelheid Otto", Harrassowitz Verlag, 2024 Template:ISBN
  39. ↑ [7]Al-Mutawalli, Nawala, and Walther Sallaberger, "A Door Socket from Šu-Suen's Shara Temple at Umma (Tell Jokha)", 2025
  40. ↑ Andrae, W., "Aus einem Berichte W. Andrae's über seine Exkursion von Fara nach den südbabylonischen Ruinenstätten", Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft 16, pp. 16–24, 1902–1903
  41. ↑ a b c d [8]Adams, Robert McCormick, "The Uruk countryside: The natural setting of urban societies", 1972 Alt Url - [9] Template:ISBN
  42. ↑ Drahoslav Hulínek and Tibor Lieskovský, "Report Archaeological project SAHI - Tell Jokha, 2016", Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute, 2016
  43. ↑ Hulínek, Drahoslav, et al., eds., "Preliminary Report Archaeological Project SAHI-Tell Jokha, 2019: Season 3", Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute-SAHI, 2020
  44. ↑ Drahoslav Hulínek, Eva Hulínková Ťuchová, "The SAHI Tell Jokha Archaeological Project: Campaign 2016–2017", in The Intellectual Heritage of the Ancient Near East, Proceedings of the 64th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale and the 12th Melammu Symposium, University of Innsbruck, July 16‒20, 2018, pp. 849-868, 2023/04/12
  45. ↑ Almamori, H. A., "The Excavation Results of the Third and Fourth Seasons at Umm al-Aqarib (2001–2002)", Sumer 52, pp. 242–93, 2003-2004 (Arabic)
  46. ↑ Ławecka, Dorota, "Bent or Straight Axis? Temple Plans in Early Dynastic Southern Babylonia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 206-228, 2014
  47. ↑ Hamdani, Abdulamir al., "Protecting and Recording Our Archaeological Heritage in Southern Iraq", Near Eastern Archaeology, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 221–30, 2008
  48. ↑ Almamori, Haider Oraibi. "The Early Dynastic Monumental Buildings at Umm Al-Aqarib" Iraq 76, pp. 149-187, 2014
  49. ↑ Abid, Ameer Najim, "The architecture of white temples in the cities of ancient central and southern Mesopotamia (Uruk-Umm Al-Aqarib-Tal Al-Uqair) A comparative study", ISIN Journal 5, pp. 53-79, 2023
  50. ↑ Youkhanna, Donny George, H. O. Al-Mamori, and L. Werr, "Temple ‘H’ at Umm al Aqarib", Of Pots and Plans: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday. London: Nabu, pp. 379-385, 2002
  51. ↑ Oraibi, Almamori Haider Abdollwahed, "Umm al-Aqarib: an architectural and textual study of a Sumerian City", Dissertation, 2013
  52. ↑ Frayne, Douglas R., "The Struggle for Hegemony in ‘Early Dynastic II’Sumer", The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies Journal 4, pp. 37-75, 2009
  53. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S., "The final report of the excavations in Shmet – 1st season 2001", SBAH, Ministry of Culture, Rep. of Iraq (in Arabic), 2001
  54. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S., "Prospecting at the site of Shmeet 2001–2002", Sumer 52, pp. 201–241 (in Arabic) 2003
  55. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S., "The site of Shmet in the light of archaeological excavations", Unpublished Ph. D. thesis submitted to the Dept. of Archaeology, College of Arts, University of Baghdad (in Arabic), 2014
  56. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S. and B. K. Abboodi, "The final report of the excavations in Shmet – 2nd season 2002", SBAH, Ministry of Culture, Rep. of Iraq (in Arabic), 2002
  57. ↑ Salman Fahad, Sa’ad and Abdul-Qadir Abbas, Raghad., "Cuneiform Tablets from Shmet from the Excavation Season of 2001", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 2020
  58. ↑ [10]Molina Martos, Manuel, Amir Zamani, and Sina Abaslou. "Two cuneiform tablets in the Four Seasons Museum of Arak, Iran", in Sentido de un empeño. Homenatge a Gregorio del Olmo Lete, pp, 369-373, 2021
  59. ↑ [11] Douglas R. Frayne, "Akkad", The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993 Template:ISBN
  60. ↑ Steinkeller, Piotr, "Babylonian priesthood during the third millennium BCE: between sacred and profane", Journal of ancient near eastern religions 19.1-2, pp. 112-151, 2019
  61. ↑ [12] Maeda, Tohru, "Royal Inscriptions of Lugalzagesi and Sargon", Orient 40, pp. 3-30, 2005
  62. ↑ Gibson, M., "Legal And Illegal Acquisition Of Antiquities In Iraq, 19th Century To 2003", in Cultural Heritage Issues. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, pp. 185–197 , 2010
  63. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  64. ↑ Saadoon, Abather Rahi, "Sumerian Texts from the Archive of the Princess Šāt-Eštar in the Collections of the Iraq Museum", Iraq 80, pp. 213-231, 2018
  65. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ a b c d e f Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  67. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  68. ↑ Armando Bramanti, "Three Administrative Texts from the Time of Me’annedu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 69, pp. 33–47, 2017
  69. ↑ Monaco, Salvatore F., "Meannedu, Ruler of Umma", in dNisaba za3-mi2, Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honor of Francesco Pomponio, ed. Palmiro Notizia, Annunziata Rositani and Lorenzo Verderame, pp. 175-180, 2021
  70. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  71. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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Further reading

  • Adams, R., "Shepherds at Umma in the Third Dynasty of Ur: Interlocutors with a World beyond the Scribal Field of Ordered Vision", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 49(2), pp. 133-169, 2006
  • B. Alster, "Geštinanna as Singer and the Chorus of Uruk and Zabalam", UET 6/1 22, JCS, vol. 37, pp. 219–28, 1985
  • Alivernini, Sergio, "Mathematical Aspects of Earth-Moving Linked to Hydraulic Works in Ur III Umma", Iraq, vol. 80, pp. 15–34, 2018
  • [13] Bedale, Charles Lees, "Sumerian Tablets from Umma in the John Rylands Library, Manchester", The University Press, 1915
  • Georges Contenau, "Umma sous la Dynastie d'Ur", Librarie Paul Geuthner, 1916
  • Jacob L. Dahl, "The Ruling Family of Ur III Umma: A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago", Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten/Netherlands Institute for the Near East (NINO), 2007, Template:ISBN
  • [14] Romina Laurito, Alessandra Mezzasalma, Lorenzo Verderame, "Texts and Labels: A Case Study from Neo-Sumerian Umma", Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, July 18–22, 2005 Robert D. Biggs, Jennie Myers, and Martha T. Roth, eds., Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 62, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2008 Template:ISBN
  • Lambert, Maurice, "L’occupation Du Girsu Par Urlumma Roi d’Umma", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 81–84, 1965
  • Langdon, S., "Tablets from Kish and Umma", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 67–79, 1937
  • T. Maeda, "Ruler's Family of Umma and Control over the Circulation of Silver", ASJ 18, pp. 254–260, 1996
  • Molina, Manuel, "Court Officials at Umma in Ur III Times", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 103, no. 2, pp. 125–148, 2013
  • P. Notizia, "More on the Pre-Sargonic Tablets from the Umma Region in the Rosen Collection. Collations and Remarks", Orientalia NS 88, pp. 94–117, 2019
  • [15] Notizia, Palmiro, and Haider Oraibi Almamori, "The city-state of Umma in the Pre-Sargonic period. New tablets from the Iraq Museum", Akkadica 142, pp. 1–30, 2021
  • Notizia, P. and Visicato, G., "Early Dynastic and Early Sargonic Administrative Texts Mainly from the Umma Region in the Cornell University Cuneiform Collections", CUSAS 33. Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2016
  • Ouyang, Xiaoli, "Managing the Treasuries of the Gods—Administration of the KÙ.AN in Ur III Umma", Journal of Ancient Civilizations 35, pp. 13-32, 2020
  • F. Pomponio, "Lukalla of Umma", ZA 82, pp. 169–179, 1992
  • Rost, Stephanie, and Angelo Di Michele, "Systematic Versus Random Sampling in Approaches to Landscape Archaeology: The Umma Survey Project in Southern Mesopotamia", Journal of Field Archaeology 47.5, pp. 285–304, 2022
  • Schneider, N., "Der Kultische Ursprung Der Monatsnamen in Umma", Orientalia, vol. 1, pp. 223–30, 1932
  • Shin T. Kang, "Sumerian economic texts from the Umma archive", University of Illinois Press, 1973 Template:ISBN
  • Tonia M. Sharlach, "Provincial taxation and the Ur III State", Brill, 2003 Template:ISBN
  • Steinkeller, Piotr, "An Estimate of the Population of the City of Umma in Ur III Times", At the Dawn of History: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of J. N. Postgate, edited by Yağmur Heffron, Adam Stone and Martin Worthington, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 535–566, 2017

External links

Template:Rulers of Sumer Template:Authority control

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