Tumulus culture

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Template:Short description Template:Infobox archaeological culture

Central European Bronze Age
Late Bronze Age
Ha B2/3 950–800 BC
Ha B1 1050–950 BC
Ha A2 1100–1050 BC
Ha A1 1200–1100 BC
Bz D 1300–1200 BC
Middle Bronze Age
Bz C2 1400–1300 BC
Bz C1 1500–1400 BC
Bz B 1600–1500 BC
Early Bronze Age
Bz A2 2000–1600 BC
Bz A1 2300–2000 BC

The Tumulus culture (German: Hügelgräberkultur) was the dominant material culture in Central Europe during the Middle Bronze Age (Template:Circa 1600 to 1300 BC).

It was the descendant of the Unetice culture. Its heartland was the area previously occupied by the Unetice culture, and its territory included parts of Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, the Carpathian Basin, Poland and France. It was succeeded by the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture and part of the origin of the Italic and Celtic cultures.[1]

Artefacts and characteristics

File:02019 0741 16-14th-century BC works in Silesia.jpg
Tumulus culture artefacts from Silesia, Poland, 16th-14th century BC

The Tumulus culture is distinguished by the practice of burying the dead beneath burial mounds (tumuli or kurgans).

In 1902, Paul Reinecke distinguished a number of cultural horizons based on research of Bronze Age hoards and tumuli in periods covered by these cultural horizons are shown in the table below (right). The Tumulus culture was prevalent during the Bronze Age periods B, C1, and C2. Tumuli have been used elsewhere in Europe from the Stone Age to the Iron Age; the term "Tumulus culture" specifically refers to the South German variant of the Bronze Age. In the table, Ha designates Hallstatt. Archaeological horizons Hallstatt A–B are part of the Bronze Age Urnfield culture, while horizons Hallstatt C–D are the type site for the Iron Age Hallstatt culture.

The Tumulus culture was eminently a warrior society, which expanded with new chiefdoms eastward into the Carpathian Basin (up to the river Tisza), and northward into Polish and Central European Únětice territories.

Some scholars see Tumulus groups from southern Germany as corresponding to a community that shared an extinct Indo-European linguistic entity, such as the hypothetical Italo-Celtic group that was ancestral to Italic and Celtic.[2][3] This particular hypothesis, however, conflicts with suggestions by other Indo-Europeanists. For instance, David W. Anthony suggests that Proto-Italic (and perhaps also Proto-Celtic) speakers could have entered Northern Italy at an earlier stage, from the east (e.g., the Balkan/Adriatic region).[4]

Culture

File:MUFT - Schwarza Frauentracht.jpg
Women's attire from Schwarza, Germany, Template:Circa (reconstruction)[5]

Settlements

The culture's dispersed settlements consisted of villages or homesteads centered on fortified structures such as hillforts.[6] Significant fortified settlements include the Heuneburg, Bullenheimer Berg, Ehrenbürg, and Bernstorf.[7][8] Fortification walls were built from wood, stone and clay. The massive 3.6m-wide wall surrounding the plateau of the Ehrenbürg resembled later murus gallicus fortifications known from the Iron Age.[9] 'Cyclopean' stone fortifications topped with wooden battlements were constructed Template:Circa at the large hillfort of Stätteberg in Bavaria.[10]

Trade

Tumulus culture societies traded with those in Scandinavia, Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean region and the Aegean. Traded items included amber and metal artefacts.[11] From the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age there is evidence for the use of weighed metal as form of payment or money.[12][13][14] Weighing equipment has been found in central Europe dating from c. 1400 BC onwards.[15]

Metalwork

The Bronze Hand of Prêles from Switzerland, dating from the 16th-15th century BC, is a unique find from the Tumulus culture period.[16] Described as "the earliest metal representation of a human body part ever found in Europe",[17] it may have been a ritual object, or mounted on a standard like similar metal hands known from the Iron Age,[18] or possibly a prosthesis.[19] It was found in a grave along with a bronze hair-ring, pin and dagger. The hand had a golden bracelet or cuff decorated with solar motifs.[20]

Calendar

Golden hats from Schifferstadt in Germany and Avanton in France, dating from the late Tumulus period (c. 1400 BC), may have been worn by elite religious figures, described as 'oracles' or 'king-priests' by researchers.[21][22] The patterns of ornaments or symbols on the hats are thought to represent calendars,[23][24] as on the later and more elaborate Berlin Gold Hat, which may encode knowledge of the luni-solar Metonic cycle.[25] Some researchers have suggested that a Venus calendar is encoded on the Schifferstadt hat and later Ezeldorf and Berlin gold hats.[26][27] Gold discs from the Czech Republic, dating from c. 1650-1250 BC, feature similar ornaments and are thought to represent simpler calendars.[28][29] Identical 'ritual objects' from Haschendorf in Austria and Balkåkra in Sweden may also date from the Middle Bronze Age and have been interpreted as solar calendars.[30][31] Simple numerals on the objects in the form of lines and dots represent assembly instructions for the objects.[32] Similar 'counting marks' were also used by craftsmen in the production of swords.[33] The repeated use of numbers 10, 20, 30 in the construction of the Balkåkra and Haschendorf objects suggests the use of a ten-digit system.[34]

Gallery

See also

Template:Bronze Age Europe

References

  • Nora Kershaw Chadwick, J. X. W. P. Corcoran, The Celts (1970), p. 27.[1]
  • Barbara Ann Kipfer, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology (2000)
Specific

Template:Reflist

External links

Template:Sister project

Template:Bronze Age footer Template:Portal bar

  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Kortlandt, Frederik (2007a). Italo-Celtic origins and prehistoric development of the Irish language. Amsterdam: Rodopi, Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  3. ↑ Eska, J. F. (2010). "The emergence of the Celtic languages". IN: M. J. Ball and N. Müller (eds.), The Celtic Languages, second edition. London: Routledge, Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  4. ↑ Anthony, David W. (2010). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press, p. 367.
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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