Synergism

Template:Short description In Christian theology, synergism refers to the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of salvation. Before Augustine of Hippo (354–430), synergism was almost universally endorsed. Later, it came to be reflected in the so-called semi-Pelagian position and the semi-Augustinian stance affirmed by the Second Council of Orange (529). Synergism is affirmed by both the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy. It is also present in various Protestant denominations, such as Anabaptist churches, and is particularly prominent in those influenced by Arminian theology, such as the Methodist churches.

Definition

Synergism comes from the Greek syn (with) and ergon (work) and refers to two or more sources working together. In Christian theology, it describes the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of salvation. It implies a free human participation in salvation.

Theology

Historical developments

Before Augustine (354–430), the synergistic view of salvation was almost universally endorsed.

Pelagius (c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will. The Pelagian view is therefore referred to as "humanistic monergism". This view was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and Ephesus (431).

In response, Augustine proposed a view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a compatibilist form of theological determinism. The Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism". However, Augustinian soteriology implied double predestination, which was condemned by the Council of Arles (475).

During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed semi-Pelagianism. This view asserted that human will initiates salvation, rather than divine grace. The semi-Pelagian view is therefore described as "human-initiated synergism".

In 529, the Second Council of Orange addressed semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God’s grace. This highlights the role of prevenient grace enabling human belief. This view, often referred to as "semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism". The Council also rejected predestination to evil.

Characterization of the Pelagian–Augustinian salvation framework

The Pelagian–Augustinian framework serves as a key paradigm for understanding contemporary forms of synergism. Augustine argued that prevenient grace is necessary to prepare the human will for conversion. He maintained that God predetermined parents to seek baptism for their newborns, linking water baptism to regeneration. Furthermore, he viewed the divine grace that brings about conversion as unfailing.

The semi-Augustinian stance builds upon Augustinian thought, also associating regeneration with water baptism. However, it rejects predetermination, allowing space for human decision, particularly in the act of faith. Thus, it maintains that vocation and the gift of faith are divine actions through prevenient grace, while faith itself is a human action, and regeneration remains a divine action. The semi-Pelagian position holds that vocation and conversion through faith are human actions, while the "increase of faith" bringing regeneration is a divine action. In Pelagianism, humans possess the innate capacity to obey God. Consequently, all steps of salvation are voluntary human actions.

Comparison of the authors' actions in the Pelagian–Augustinian salvation frameworks

Framework	Augustinianism	Semi-Augustinianism	Semi-Pelagianism	Pelagianism
Salvation process type	Divine monergism	God-initiated synergism	Human-initiated synergism	Humanistic monergism
Vocation	God	God	Human	Human
Conversion (gift of faith)	God	God	Human	Human
Conversion (faith)	God	Human	Human	Human
Regeneration	God	God	God	Human

Views among Christian denominations

File:Hunt Light of the World.jpg

Synergists compare God's role in salvation to Christ "standing at the door" (The Light of the World by William Holman Hunt).

Denominations traditionally upholding synergism

Catholic theology

Synergism is an important part of the salvation theology of the Catholic Church. Following the Second Council of Orange (529), the Council of Trent (1545–63) reaffirmed the resistibility of prevenient grace and its synergistic nature. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992) teaches that the ability of the human will to respond to divine grace is itself conferred by grace. This synergistic process applies to both justification and sanctification. The sacraments of the Catholic Church such as baptism and the Eucharist, are part of God's grace and are thus a vital element in the synergistic process of salvation.

Eastern Orthodox theology

In Eastern Orthodox theology, God's grace and the human response work together in a "cooperation" or "synergy". This perspective has historically presented less theological tension on this issue compared to the Christian West. In the salvation process, divine grace always precedes any human action. Man possesses libertarian freedom (as implied by the Gnomic will) and must consciously respond to divine grace. This understanding is similar to the Arminian protestant synergism. The Orthodox synergistic process of salvation includes baptism as a response to divine grace. Deification, or theosis, is also an integral part of this process.

Anabaptist theology

Anabaptists hold to synergism, teaching that "both God and man play real and necessary parts in the reconciling relationship which binds them." Anabaptists have a high view of the moral capacities of humans when "enlivened by the active agency of the Holy Spirit".

Arminian theology

Christians who adhere to Arminian theology, such as Methodists, believe that salvation is synergistic. Jacobus Arminius first emphasized the role of prevenient grace, which involves a monergistic act of God, followed by "subsequent" act involving a synergistic work. Thus, for Arminians, prevenient grace involves a synergistic process. Similarly, John Wesley held that salvation begins with divine initiative. Additionally, Wesleyan-Arminian theology teaches that both justification and sanctification are synergistic. The Arminian perspective on salvation is often described as "God-initiated synergism". This perspective aligns closely with the main characteristic of the early semi-Augustinian thought.

Semi-Pelagian view

Semi-Pelagianism is present in many current evangelical denominations. It holds that a person can initiate faith independently, without prevenient grace, while its continuation through regeneration depends on God’s grace. This has led to its characterization as "human-initiated synergism". After the Reformation, Reformed theologians used the term "semi-Pelagianism" to describe both "semi-Pelagianism" and "semi-Augustinianism," the latter being a divine-initiated synergism.

Denominations traditionally upholding monergism

Lutheran theology

Martin Luther (1483-1546) limited monergism strictly to soteriological aspects. He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and reprobation. Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism. Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism. The "synergistic controversy" arose when Gnesio-Lutherans, citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of human will in conversion.

By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the Book of Concord (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation. Accordingly, the contemporary Lutheran Church continues to uphold this view. While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.

The Lutheran Churches generally teach monergism with regard to the doctrine of justification; the Small Catechism states that “I believe that I cannot by my own reason or strength believe in Jesus Christ, my Lord, or come to Him, but the Holy Spirit has called me by the gospel, enlightened me with His gifts, sanctified and kept me in the true faith.”

With regard to sanctification, Lutheran scholar Gerhard Forde explained that "a key tenet of the Lutheran view of sanctification is that cooperation must not ignore grace." Forde said, with regard to sanctifiation, that "There is a kind of growth and progress, it is to be hoped, but it is growth in grace—a growth in coming to be captivated ore and more, if we can so speak, by the totality, the unconditionality of the grace of God." Lutheran theologian Mark Ellingsen states that there is an "openness to Synergism one finds affirmed in official Lutheran documents. With warnings, the synergistic joining of our will with God’s grace is not rejected (Formula of Concord, SD II.90). Of course this openness is endorsed along with the strong Lutheran commitment to prevenient grace (the belief that grace precedes any synergistic cooperation), for the Holy Spirit is given credit for our faith and for the surrender of the will to God (Romans 3:21-28; Galatians 3:10-14; Luther’s Works, Vo.26, p.106; Small Catechism, II.6)." The Formula of Concord teaches "But the intellect and will of the unregenerate man are nothing else than subiectum convertendum, that is, that which is to be converted, it being the intellect and will of a spiritually dead man, in whom the Holy Ghost works conversion and renewal, towards which work man’s will that is to be converted does nothing, but suffers God alone to work in him, until he is regenerate; and then he works also with the Holy Ghost [cooperates] that which is pleasing to God in other good works that follow, in the way and to the extent fully set forth above" (SD II.90).

Reformed theology

In orthodox Reformed theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive divine providence. For example, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was determined by God. In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by Oliver D. Crisp in his book Deviant Calvinism (2014), is a soteriological monergism. Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.

Anglican theology

Anglicanism originally inclined toward monergism due to its Lutheran and Calvinist heritage, but it eventually accommodated both monergistic and synergistic interpretations. The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, finalized in 1571, serve as the confession of faith for the Anglican tradition. They reflect a complex interplay of Calvinist influence, Catholic practice, and intentional ambiguity within individual articles. Today, in some Anglican denominations, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles, while in others, they are not.

Anglicanism has historically leaned more toward monergism, particularly in its early phases. Early Anglican leaders such as Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) held Reformed views that significantly shaped the Church’s initial doctrinal direction. However, following the Stuart Restoration (1660) through the mid-18th century, Calvinist theology became less prominent within Anglicanism. Afterward, the Evangelical movement within Anglicanism revived and emphasized its Reformed roots. Related groups like the Church Society tend to interpret Article 10 of the Thirty-nine Articles in a monergistic sense.

Conversely, high church and Anglo-Catholic traditions have tended toward synergism, drawing on the theology of the early Church Fathers and emphasizing the sacramental life, human free will, and cooperation with divine grace. Proto-Arminian figures like Lancelot Andrewes (1555–1626) and Jeremy Taylor (1613–1667) upheld the importance of the human response to God’s call. In the 18th and 19th centuries, theologians such as George Pretyman Tomline (1750–1827) and Harold Browne (1811–1891) also interpreted Article 10 in a synergistic light.

See also

• Dyoenergism
• Dyothelitism
• Libertarianism (metaphysics)
• Monoenergism

Notes and references

Sources

• Template:Cite CE1913