Svādhyāya

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File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg
Rigveda manuscript, Sanskrit in Devanagari script, India, early 19th century

Template:Transliteration (Devanagari: Script error: No such module "Lang".) is a Sanskrit term which means self-study and especially the recitation of the Vedas and other sacred texts.Template:EfnTemplate:EfnTemplate:Efn It is also a broader concept with several meanings. In various schools of Hinduism, Svadhyaya is a Niyama (virtuous observance) connoting introspection and "study of self".[1]

Etymology, meaning and usage

Svādhyāya is a compound Sanskrit word composed of sva (स्व) + adhyāya (अध्याय). Adhyāya means "a lesson, lecture, chapter; reading".[2] Svā means "own, one's own, self, the human soul".[3] Therefore, Svādhyāya literally means "one's own reading, lesson".

Svādhyāya is also a compound Sanskrit word composed of svā (स्वा) + dhyāya (ध्याय). Dhyāya means "meditating on".[4] The root of Adhyāya and Dhyāya is “Dhyai” (ध्यै) which means “meditate, contemplate, think of”.[5] The term Svādhyāya therefore, also connotes “contemplation, meditation, reflection of one self”, or simply “to study one’s own self”.[6]

The term Svadhyaya has other meanings. In the Śruti, it refers to the historical practice of self-reciting Vedas to ensure it is memorized and faithfully transmitted, without writing, by the word of mouth, to the next generation.[7] In various schools of Hinduism, particularly Yoga, Svadhyaya is also a niyama, a virtuous behavior. As a virtue, it means "study of self", "self-reflection", "introspection, observation of self".[8][9][10]

Template:Transliteration is translated in a number of ways. Some translate it as the "study of the scriptures and darśanas."[11] Some translators simply use the word "study" without qualifying the type of study.[12][13] MacNeill translates it as "self-study or spiritual self-education".[14] Dhyāya, when used in the context of self study in ancient and medieval Indian texts, is synonymous with Abhyasa, Adhi and Viks; while Adhyāya, when used in context of reciting and reading in Indian texts, is synonymous with Anukti, Nipatha[15] and Patha.[16][17]

Svadhyaya in ancient literature

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Upanishads

Taittiriya Upanishad’s hymn 1.9.1[18] emphasizes the central importance of Svadhyaya in one’s pursuit of Reality (Ṛta), Truth (Satya), Self-restraint (Damah), Perseverance (Tapas), Tranquility and Inner Peace (Samas),[19] Relationships with others, family, guests (Praja, Prajana, Manush, Atithi) and all Rituals (Agnaya, Agnihotram).[20][21]

Taittiriya Upanishad, however, adds in verse 1.9.1, that along with the virtue of Template:Transliteration process of learning, one must teach and share (pravacana) what one learns.[20] This is expressed by the phrase "Template:Transliteration", translated as "and learning and teaching" by Gambhīrānanda[22]

In verse 1.11.1, the final chapter in the education of a student, the Taittiriya Upanishad reminds,[23]

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सत्यंवद । धर्मंचर । स्वाध्यायान्माप्रमदः ।

Speak the Satya, follow the Dharma, from Svadhyaya never cease.

— Template:Comma separated entries

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One of the earliest mention of Svādhyāya is found in Taittiriya Aranyaka 2.15: "Template:Transliteration" ("svādhyāya must be practiced"). Śatpath Brāhmana also repeats it.[27]Template:Full citation needed Chandogya Upanishad verse 4.16.1-2 recommends both silent (mānas) and vocal (vāchika) types of svādhyāya.

Other scriptures

Patanjali's Yogasutra, in verse II.44, recommends Svadhyaya as follows

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स्वाध्यायादिष्टदेवतासंप्रयोगः॥

Study thy self, discover the divine.

— Template:Comma separated entries

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Vishnu Smriti's verse 22.92, states that "human body is cleansed by water, the mind is cleansed by truth, the soul by self-study and meditation, while understanding is cleansed by knowledge".[29]

Vasistha Dharmasastra verses 27.1 through 27.7 states that Svadhyaya helps an individual understand and overcome his past.[30] Apastamba Dharmasutra 1.4.12.1 states Svadhyaya is a form of Tapas. This view is shared by Baudhayana Dharmasastra in verses 4.1.29 to 4.1.30, which adds that ‘‘svadhyaya is a means of getting past one’s past mistakes and any guilt”.[31] Baudhayana Dharmasastra describes ‘‘Svadhyaya’’, in verse 2.6.11, as the path to Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Spirit, Eternal Self).[30]

Template:Transliteration is mentioned as one of the virtues in Bhagavad Gita 16.1.[32] Svadhyaya is mentioned a second time in Bhagavad Gita verse 17.15 as a component of the discipline of one's speech by which, states the verse, " speak words that are truthful, kind, helpful, and elevates those who hear it".[33][34]

Svadhyaya as a historical practice

Learning one's Vedic recension

As a tool for memorization, Template:Transliteration had a unique meaning for Vedic scholars as the principal tool for the oral preservation of the Vedas in their original form for millennia. When used as a formal part of scriptural study, Template:Transliteration involves repeated recitations of scripture for purposes of mastering the mantras with their accurate pronunciation.[7]

The Vedas had not been committed to writing in ancient times. Almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years, not on the still-extant and superior oral tradition.[35] Monier Monier-Williams defines śruti as "sacred knowledge orally transmitted by the Template:Transliteration from generation to generations, the Veda".[36] Michael Witzel explains this oral tradition as follows:

The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording.... Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present.[37]"

The commentator Sāyana discusses this term in the introduction of his commentary on the Template:Transliteration, in which he says that Template:Transliteration enables Vedic rituals (yājnika karmakānda) to take place.[38]

Madhva, the dualistic Vaishnava philosopher, defined philosophy as the three-stage process of understanding (Template:Transliteration), reflection (Template:Transliteration), and application (Template:Transliteration), expressing itself in two forms: study (Template:Transliteration) and teaching (Template:Transliteration). Of these two, Madhva considered teaching to be the highest aspect of discipline leading to [[Moksha|Template:Transliteration]].[39] Mādhavāchārya's views on svādhyāya are to be found in chapter 15 of Sarva-Darśana-Sangraha (cf. references).

The Taittirīya Upanishad, which belongs to the Yajur Veda, is still popular among those who learn Vedic chanting.[40] Recitation of mantras (Japa) is an integral part of Bhakti Yoga, and in this tradition of Hinduism, it is sometimes called Japa Yoga.[41]

Exceptions

There are certain days on which Template:Transliteration were prohibited, these were called Template:Transliteration, after which Template:Transliteration must be resumed on the following day; therefore the day of resumption is also called Template:Transliteration.[42]

Svadhyaya as a Niyama

File:Siddhasana.svg
Yoga meditation – a means to the virtue of Svadhyaya.

Svādhyāya is one of the three key elements in the practice of yoga as defined in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, appearing in the opening verse of Book two on spiritual practice and elaborated upon in two other verses.[43] Patanjali mentions Template:Transliteration a second time as one of the five recommended observances (niyamas), along with purity, contentment, austerity, and self-surrender.[44] The five niyamas, together with the five abstentions (yamas),[45] have been described as "'the ten commandments' of the Template:Transliteration."[46]

The practice of Svadhyaya as a Niyama is perfected in many forms.[6] One form of Svadhyaya is mantra meditation, where certain sound constructs pregnant with meaning are recited, anchoring the mind to one thought. This practice helps draw the mind away from outward-going tendencies, silencing the crowding of thoughts, and ultimately towards inward feeling of resonance.[6] It can alternately be any music, sermon, chant, inspirational book that absorbs the person to a state of absorption, trance, unifying oneness.[47]

Svadhyaya is practiced as a self-reflection process, where one silently meditates, in Asana, on one's own behaviors, motivations and plans. Svadhyaya is, in a sense, for one's spirit and mind a process equivalent to watching one's body in a non-distorting mirror.[48] This self-study, in Yoga, is not merely contemplation of one's own motives and behaviors, but also of one's circumstances and the environment one is in, assessing where one is in one's life, what is one's life direction, if and how desirable changes may lead to a more fulfilling Self.[47][49][50]

See also

Sanskrit and Vedic learning

Notes

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References

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Sources

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  1. ↑ Sharda Nandram (2010), Synchronizing Leadership Style with Integral Transformational Yoga Principles, In Spirituality and Business (Editors: Nandram and Borden), Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Template:ISBN, pages 183-203
  2. ↑ AdhyAya, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  3. ↑ SvA, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  4. ↑ dhyAyam, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  5. ↑ ध्यै Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
  6. ↑ a b c Rolf Sovik (2014), Understanding Yourself: the path of Svadhyaya, Himalayan Institute Press, Template:ISBN, pages 191-197
  7. ↑ a b For traditional uses of Template:Transliteration in the sense of repetition of scriptural mantras for purposes of memorization, see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  8. ↑ C Woiwode (2013), Transcendence and Spirituality Human Needs and the Practices of the Indian Svadhyaya Movement, Journal of Developing Societies, 29(3): 233-257
  9. ↑ KH Garland (2010), Yoga, Pradhana Dharma, and the Helping Professions: Recognizing the Risk of Codependency and the Necessity of Self-Care, International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 1(1): 90-97
  10. ↑ L. Fishman (2002), Yoga in medicine. in Alternative medicine and rehabilitation (Wainapel S, Fast A, Editors), Template:ISBN, pages 139–73
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes"., volume 4.
  12. ↑ For translation of YS 2.1 as ""Purificatory action, study, and making God the motive of action, constitute the yoga of action." see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  13. ↑ For translation of YS 2.1 as "Austerity, study, and the dedication of the fruits of one's work to God: these are the preliminary steps to yoga." see: Prabhavananda and Isherwood, p. 95.
  14. ↑ Paul MacNeill (2011), Yoga and Ethics: The Importance of Practice, in Yoga-Philosophy for Everyone (Editors: Stillwagon et al.), Wiley-Blackwell, Template:ISBN, Chapter 18
  15. ↑ often used to describe recitation of Vedas by a student; see BL Dwivedi (1994), Evolution of educational thought in India, Template:ISBN, page 119
  16. ↑ Study Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany; see discussion notes and cited Indian texts
  17. ↑ Sanskrit English Dictionary Koeln University, Germany; Search for each of: abhyAsam, adhI, vIkS, anUkti, nipaTha, paTh
  18. ↑ Original:
    ऋतं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । सत्यं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । तपश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । दमश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । शमश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अग्नयश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अग्निहोत्रं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अतिथयश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । मानुषं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजा च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजनश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजातिश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च ॥ १ ॥
    For two translations: TN Raghavendra (2002), Vishnu Saharanama, Template:ISBN, page 763, and Script error: No such module "Footnotes".
  19. ↑ शम
  20. ↑ a b TN Raghavendra (2002), Vishnu Saharanama, Template:ISBN, page 763
  21. ↑ For translation, see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  22. ↑ For Sanskrit text of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.9.1; translation of Script error: No such module "Lang". (svādhyāyapravacane ca) as "and learning and teaching (are to be practiced)"; and comment that "Svādhyāyaḥ is study (of the scriptures). Pravacanam is teaching (of the scriptures)", see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  23. ↑ For context as "the teacher gives the scholar who is departing on his life's journey", and translation of opening phrases of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11, see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  24. ↑ TN Raghavendra (2002), Vishnu Saharanama, Template:ISBN, page 197-198
  25. ↑ For text and translation of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11.1 phrase Template:Transliteration (= Template:Transliteration "from study" + Template:Transliteration "make no deviation") as "Make no mistake about study", see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  26. ↑ For translation of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11.1 phrase as "Do not neglect study [of the Veda]", see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes".; For translation of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11.1 phrase Template:Transliteration as "Do not be negligent in the study and recitation [of the Veda]", see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  27. ↑ Monier-Williams
  28. ↑ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, page 209
  29. ↑ Original: Vishnu Smriti, Verse 22.92, page 68 (in Sanskrit)
    Translation: Vishnu Smriti Julius Jolly (Translator), Charles Scribner & Sons, Chapter XXII, Verse 92, page 97
  30. ↑ a b W.O. Kaebler, Tapta-Marga: Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India, State University of New York Press, pages 53-60, 112-115
  31. ↑ Walter O. Kaelber (1979), Tapas and Purification in Early Hinduism, Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2 (Dec., 1979), pages 192-214
  32. ↑ For text of BG 16.1 and translation of Template:Transliteration as "study of the scriptures", see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  33. ↑ For text of BG 17.15 and translation of Template:Transliteration as "the practice of the study of scriptures" see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  34. ↑ Christopher Key Chapple (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 648
  35. ↑ Quotation of "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years, not on the still extant and superior oral tradition" is from: Witzel, M., "Vedas and Template:Transliteration", in: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  36. ↑ For definition of śruti as "sacred knowledge orally transmitted" see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  37. ↑ For the quotation comparing recital to a "tape-recording" see: Witzel, M., "Vedas and Template:Transliteration", in: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  38. ↑ For text of Sāyana commentary as Template:Transliteration see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  39. ↑ For Madhva's threefold definition of philosophy and the twofold division of expression, see: Raghavendrachar, H. N., "Madhva's Brahma-Mīmāṁsā", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), volume 3, p. 330.
  40. ↑ For Template:Transliteration as part of Yajur Veda, and continued popularity with students of Vedic chant, see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  41. ↑ Jennifer Munyer (2012), How Yoga Won the West, in Yoga-Philosophy for Everyone: Bending Mind and Body (Editors: Liz Swan and Fritz Allhoff), Wiley-Blackwell, Template:ISBN, pages 3-14
  42. ↑ Sanskrit English Dictionary of Monier-Williams
  43. ↑ For Sanskrit text of verses 2.1, 2.32, and 2.44 and discussion as a key practice, see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  44. ↑ For text and translation of YS 2.32, and translation of niyama as "observances", see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  45. ↑ For the five yamas or "restraints" as: abstention from injury (Template:Transliteration, nonviolence), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), control of the carnal desires and passions (brahmacarya), and non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts (aparigraha), see: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"..
  46. ↑ For quotation including Template:Transliteration in the comparison to the ten commandments, see: Hiriyanna, M., "The Template:Transliteration", in: Script error: No such module "Footnotes"., volume 3.
  47. ↑ a b Gary Kraftsow, Polishing the mirror, Yoga Journal, February 25, 2008
  48. ↑ G Kraftsow (2002), Yoga for Transformation: Ancient Teachings and Holistic Practices for Healing Body, Mind, and Heart, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages 22-27
  49. ↑ Nina Markil, Hatha Yoga: Benefits and Principles for a More Meaningful Practice, ACSM'S Health & Fitness Journal, September/October 2010, 14(5): pp 19-24
  50. ↑ Michelle Corrigan (2010), Your Quest for a Spiritual Life: Based on the Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, Template:ISBN, pages 33-34
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