Slavic dragon

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Template:Short description

File:Slavic doragon.jpg
Mikhail Zlatkovsky. Caricature of the revival of paganism in Russia. 1977

A Slavic dragon is any dragon in Slavic mythology, including the Polish żmij, Russian zmei (or Script error: No such module "lang".; Script error: No such module "Lang".), Ukrainian Script error: No such module "lang". (Script error: No such module "Lang".), and its counterparts in other Slavic cultures (See Template:Section link below). The physiognomy resembles a combination of the classical dragon and a snake (as a winged serpent), less often depicted with two legs and/or more than one head. Similar representations include the Aztec Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent) or Caduceus (Sumerian symbol of the god Enki borrowed into Greek mythology).

The Romanian zmeu could also be deemed a "Slavic" dragon, but a non-cognate etymology has been proposed.

A zmei may be beast-like or human-like (assuming dragon form in air, human form on ground), sometimes wooing women, but often plays the role of chief antagonist in Russian literature. In the Balkans, the zmei type is overall regarded as benevolent, as opposed to malevolent dragons known variously as Template:Interlanguage link, ala or hala, or aždaja.

The Polish smok (e.g. Wawel Dragon of Kraków) or the Ukrainian or Belarusian smok (смок), tsmok (цмок), can also be included. In some Slavic traditions smok is an ordinary snake which may turn into a dragon with age.

Some of the common motifs concerning Slavic dragons include their identification as masters of weather or water source; that they start life as snakes; and that both the male and female can be romantically involved with humans.

Nomenclature

Etymology

The Slavic terms descend from Proto-Slavic *zmьjь. The further derivation that Serbo-Croatian zmaj "dragon" and Template:Linktext "earth" ultimately descend from the same Proto-Slavic root zьm-, from the zero grade of Proto-Indo-European *ǵhdem, was proposed by Croatian linguist Petar Skok.Template:Refn Lithuanian scholarship also points out that the connection of the snake (zmey) with the earthly realm is even more pronounced in folk incantations, since its name would etymologically mean 'earthly (being); that which creeps underground'.[1]

The Russian zmei, Ukrainian zmiy may be rendered "serpent", but a "flying serpent" is always implicit,Template:Refn and similarly for the Belarussian Script error: No such module "lang".,Template:Refn hence "dragon".

There is dissenting opinion that the Romanian zmeu may not be a loan word from the Slavic zmei group of words, but rather an early borrowing from the Thracian language.[2]

Forms

The forms and spellings are Russian: zmei or zmey Script error: No such module "Lang". (pl. zmei Script error: No such module "Lang".); Ukrainian: zmiy Script error: No such module "Lang". (pl. zmiyi Script error: No such module "Lang".); Belarussian: Script error: No such module "lang". (змей);Template:Sfnp Bulgarian: zmei Script error: No such module "Lang". (pl. zmeiove Script error: No such module "Lang".; female zmeikinya Script error: No such module "Lang".);[3] Polish zmiy Script error: No such module "Lang". (pl. żmije); Serbo-Croatian zmaj Script error: No such module "Lang". (pl. Script error: No such module "Lang".);[3] Slovene: zmaj zmáj or zmàj (pl. zmáji or zmáji), or Macedonian: zmev (Script error: No such module "Lang".; pl. zmevovi Script error: No such module "Lang".).[3] the Slovene zmaj, the Slovak drak and šarkan, Czech drak,Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

East Slavic zmei

File:Dobrynya Nikitich rescues Zabava from the Gorynych, 1941.jpg
Dobrynya Nikitich rescues Princess Zabava from Zmey Gorynych, by Ivan Bilibin

Script error: No such module "labelled list hatnote". In the legends of Russia and Ukraine, a particular dragon-like creature, Zmey Gorynych (Template:Langx or Template:Langx), has three to twelve heads,[4] and Tugarin Zmeyevich (literally: "Tugarin Dragon-son"), known as zmei-bogatyr or "serpent hero", is a man-like dragon who appears in Russian (or Kievan Rus) heroic literature.[5] The name "Tugarin" may symbolize Turkic or Mongol steppe-peoples.[6]

Both the Russian flying serpent or dragon (Script error: No such module "Lang".; Script error: No such module "lang".) and fiery serpent (Template:Langx; Script error: No such module "lang".) are considered types of demons, which take on the shape of serpent/dragon in air, and a humanoid on land.[7]

Chudo-Yudo

The Chudo-Yudo (or Chudo-iudo, Script error: No such module "Lang".; pl. Chuda-Yuda) is a multi-headed dragon that appears in some wondertale variants, usually considered to be water-dwelling.[8]Template:Sfnp Some legends portray him as the brother of Koshchey the Deathless, and thus the offspring of the witch Baba Yaga; others present him as a personification of the witch in her foulest form.Template:Sfnp A Chudo Yudo is one of the guardians of the Water of Life and Death, and his name traditionally was invoked in times of drought.Template:Sfnp He can apparently assume human-like forms and is able to speak and to ride a horse. He has the ability to regenerate any severed heads.[9][10]

The term Chudo-Yudo may not be a name for a specific type of dragon at all, but rather a fanciful term for a generic "monster". According to this explanation, the term is to be understood as a poetic form of chudovishche (Script error: No such module "Lang".) meaning "monster", with a Script error: No such module "lang". ending appended simply for the rhyme.[11][12] Chudo in modern Russian means "a wonder", and once also had the meaning of "a giant"; "yudo" may relate to Iuda, the Russian form of the personal name "Judas", with connotations of uncleanness and the demonic.[13]

Three- and six-headed zmei, slain by the titular hero in "Ivan Popyalov" (Script error: No such module "Lang"., "Ivan Cinders", Afanasyev's tale #135)[14] appear as six-, nine-, and twelve-headed Chuda-Iuda in the cognate tale #137 "Ivan Bykovich" (Script error: No such module "Lang".). The inference is that Chudo-Yudo must also be a dragon, even though the word "serpent" (zmei) does not appear explicitly in the latter tale.Template:Sfnp[15] The six-, nine-, and twelve-headed Chuda-Yuda that appear out of the Black Sea are explicitly described as zmei in yet another cognate tale, #136 "Storm-Bogatyr, Ivan the Cow's Son" (Script error: No such module "Lang".). The Storm-Bogatyr possesses a magic sword (sword Kladenets), but uses his battle club (or mace) to attack them.[16][17][10]

A Chudo-Yudo's heads have a remarkable healing property: even if severed, he can pick them up and re-attach them with a stroke of his fiery finger, according to one of these tales,[9] comparable to the regenerative power of the Lernaean hydra that grows its head back.Template:Sfnp

Folktales often depict Chuda-yuda as living beyond the Template:Ill (the name may suggest "Stench River")—that is, in the realm of the dead, reached by crossing over the Template:Ill ("White-hot Bridge").

Smok

The terms smok ("dragon") and tsmok ("sucker") can signify a dragon, but also just an ordinary snake. There are Slavic folk tales in which a smok, when it reaches a certain age, grows into a dragon (zmaj, etc.).Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Some common themes

Snake into dragons

The folklore that an ancient snake grows into a dragon is fairly widespread in Slavic regions. This is also paralleled by similar lore in China.Template:Efn

In Russian lore, the grass snake (Script error: No such module "Lang".) or some other serpent, lizard, rooster, or carp achieves certain longevity, such as 9 years or 40 years, it transmutes into a flying zmei.[3]

In Bulgaria is a similar folk belief that the smok ("Aesculapian snake"[18]) begins its life-cycle as a non-venomous snake but later grows into a zmei dragon after living 40 years.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp[19] Or, if the body of a decapitated snake (Script error: No such module "lang".) is joined to an ox or buffalo horn, it grows into a lamia after just 40 days, according to Bulgarian folk tradition published by Template:Interlanguage link in the 19th century.Template:Sfnp

There are also among the East Slavic folk the tradition that a viper transforms into a dragon.Template:Sfnp In Ukrainian folklore the viper needs 7 years to metamorphosize into a dragon, while in Belarusian folklore the requisite time is 100 years, according to one comparison.Template:Sfnp

The weather-making dragon, ismeju (or zmeu[20]), of Romanian Scholomance folklore is also locally believed to grow out of a snake which has lived for 9 years (belief found at "Hatzeger Thal" or Hațeg).[21]

Crossbreeds

There are other accounts of how the zmei is engendered. A hen-hatched egg unbeknownst to a human may turn into a zmei (Bulgaria).[3] Or a dragon may be born when a grass snake is swept up by whirlwind (Bulgaria).[3] It is also explained as a cross hybrid between a serpent and grass snake (Macedonia), serpent and ram (Serbia), serpent and a samovila (Macedonia). A woman may conceive a zmei with a serpent (Macedonia), but may suffer a prolonged period of pregnancy.[3]

Weather

Locally in Ukraine, around Lutsk, the rainbow is called tsmok ("sucker") which is said to be a tube that guzzles water from the sea and rivers and carries the moisture up into the clouds.Template:Refn[22]

There is the notion (thought to be inspired by the tornado) of a Slavic dragon that dips its tail into a river or lake and siphons up the water, ready to cause floods.[23]

In Romanian folklore, dragons are ridden by weather-controlling wizards called the Solomonari. The type of dragon they ride may be the zmeuTemplate:Efn[20] or the balaur, depending on the source.[24][25]

The lamia and the hala (explained further below) are also generally perceived as weather dragons or demons.

Balkan Slavic dragons

In Bulgarian lore, the zmei is sometimes described as a scale-covered serpent-like creature with four legs and bat's wings,Template:Sfnp at other times as half-man, half-snake, with wings and a fish-like tail.Template:Sfnp

In Bulgaria, this zmei tends to be regarded as a benevolent guardian creature, while the lamya and hala were seen as detrimental towards humans.[26][27]Template:Efn

Zmei lovers

A fying zmei may appear as a "mythological lover", i.e., a mythical creature behaving as a suitor and lover of human females.[3]Template:Sfnp A favorite topic of folk songs was the male zmey-lover who may marry a woman and carry her to the underworld, or a female zmeitsa (zmeitza) who falls in love with a shepherd.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp When a zmei falls in love with a woman, she may "pine, languish, become pale, neglect herself.. and generally act strangely", and the victim stricken with the condition could only be cured by bathing in infusions of certain herbs, according to superstition.Template:Sfnp

In Serbia, there is the example of the epic song Carica Milica i zmaj od Jastrepca (Template:Langx) and its folktale version translated as "The Tsarina Militza and the Zmay of Yastrebatz".[28]Template:Sfnp

Zmey of Macedonian fairy tales

In most Macedonian tales and folk songs they are described as extremely intelligent, having hypnotizing eyes. However, sometimes Zmey's could be men who would astrally project into the sky when there is a storm to battle the Lamia, a female evil version that wants to destroy the wheat. They were also known as guardians of the territory, and would even protect the people in it. Hostile behaviour was shown if another zmey comes into his territory. They could change their appearance in the form of a smoke, strong spark, fire bird, snake, cloud but almost afterwards he would gain the form of a handsome man and enter the chambers of a young maiden. They fell in love with women who were conceived on the same night as them, or born in the same day as them. He usually guards the girl from a small age and his love lasts forever. Some girls get sick by loving a zmey, and symptoms include paleness, shyness, antisocial behaviour, watery eyes, quietness and hallucinations. They didn't live a long life, because it resulted in suicide. Zmeys would kidnap girls and lead them into their mountain caves where she would serve him.

Benevolent zmei of the Balkans

There is a pan-Balkan notion that the zmei (known by various cognates) is a sort of "guardian-spirit dragon" against the "evil" types of dragon, given below.Template:Sfnp[29] One explanation is that the Balkan zmej symbolized the patriotic dragon fighting the Turkish dragon, a way to vent the local population's frustration at not being able to overthrow the long-time Turkish rule.Template:Sfnp

Zmaj of Serbian fairy tales

File:Herotaleslegends-petrovitch-p222-dragon-of-pavilion.jpg
Serbian tale "A Pavilion Neither in the Sky nor on the Earth".
—Painting by William SewellScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".

The zmaj dragon in Serbian fairy tales nevertheless have sinister roles in a number of instances. In the well-known tale[30] "A Pavilion Neither in the Sky nor on the Earth" the youngest prince succeeds in killing the dragon (zmaj) that guards the three princesses held captive.Template:RefnTemplate:Sfnp

Vuk Karadžić's collection of folktales have other examples. In "The Golden Apple-tree and the Nine Peahens", the dragon carries away the peahen maiden who is the hero's lover.[31]Template:Sfnp In "Baš Čelik" the hero must contend with a dragon-king.[32][33]

Lamia

The Template:Interlanguage link or lamya (Template:Langx), derived from the Greek lamia,Template:Sfnp is also seen as a dragon-like creature in Bulgarian ethnic population, currently inhabiting Bulgaria, with equivalents in Macedonia (lamja, lamna; Script error: No such module "Lang".), and South-East Serbian areas (Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "Lang".).Template:Sfnp

The Bulgarian lamia is described as reptile- or lizard-like and covered with scales, with 3–9 heads which are like dog's heads with sharp teeth.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp It may also have sharp claws, webbed wings, and the scales may be yellow color.Template:Sfnp

The Bulgarian lamia dwells in the bottoms of the seas and lakes, or sometimes mountainous caverns,Template:Sfnp or tree holesTemplate:Efn[34] and can stop the supply of water to the human population, demanding sacrificial offerings to undo its deed.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The lamia, bringer of drought, was considered the adversary of St. Ilya (Elijah) or a benevolent zmei.Template:Sfnp

In the Bulgarian version of Saint George and the Dragon, the dragon was a lamia.Template:Sfnp Bulgarian legends tell of how a hero (actually a double of St. George, denoted as "George of the Flowers", Cveten Gǝorgi, Template:Langx[35]) cuts off the heads of the three- or multi-headed Lamia, and when the hero accomplishes its destruction and sever all its heads, "rivers of fertility" are said to flow.Template:Sfnp[36][35] This song about St. George's fight with the lamia occurs in ritual spiritual verse supposed to be sung around St. George's day.Template:Refn[37]

One of the versions collected by ethnologist Template:Interlanguage link begins: "Script error: No such module "Lang". (George of the Flowers fared out / Going around his congregation /On the road he met the fallow lamia..)".[38]Template:Efn Another version collected by Marinov substitutes "Yuda-Samodiva" in the place of the lamia.[35] Three rivers gush out of the dragons head-stumps: typically one of corn, one of red wine, and one of milk and honey. These benefitted the crop-growers, vineyard growers (winemakers), and the beekeepers and shepherds, respectively.[38][36][35] .

Other evil Balkan dragons

There is some overlap or conflation of the lamia and the hala (or halla), although the latter is usually conceived of as a "whirlwind".Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Or it might be described as regional differences. The lamia in Eastern Bulgaria is the adversary of the benevolent zmei,[39] and the hala or ala takes its place in Western Bulgaria.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

This motif of hero against the evil dragon (lamia, ala/hala, or aždaja) is found more generally throughout the Balkan Slavic region.[40] Sometimes this hero is a saint (usually St. George).[40] And after the hero severs all its (three) heads, "three rivers of wheat, milk, and wine" flow out of the stumps.[40]Template:Efn

Hala

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The demon or creature known as hala (or ala), whose name derived from the Greek word for "hail" took the appearance of a dense mist or fog, or a black cloud.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Hala was believed to be the cause of strong winds and whirlwind in Eastern Bulgaria,Template:Sfnp whereas the lamya was blamed as the perpetrator in Southwestern Bulgarian lore.[41] In Western Bulgarian tradition, the halla itself was regarded as the whirlwind, which guarded clouds and contained the rain,Template:Sfnp but was also regarded as a type of dragon,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp alongside the folklore that the smok (roughly equated with "grass snake" but actually the Aesculapian snakeTemplate:Refn[18]) was a crag-dwelling whirlwind.Template:Sfnp

These hala were also known in East and Central Serbia.Template:Sfnp Similar lore occur in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Aždaja

The demon hala was also called by other names regionally, in some parts of Bulgaria they were known as aždarha (Template:Langx) or ažder (Script error: No such module "Lang".), in Macedonian as aždaja or ažder (Script error: No such module "Lang".), in Bosnian and Serbian as aždaja (Script error: No such module "Lang".).Template:EfnTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

The word Template:Linktext or Template:Linktext is borrowed from Persian azdahā (Script error: No such module "Lang".),[42] and has its origins in the Indo-Iranian mythology surrounding the dragon azidahā.[40] As an example, in some local Serbian icons, St. George is represented as slaying the aždaja and not a zmaj.[43]

Pozoj

A pozoj is a dragon of legends in Croatia.Template:Refn In Međimurje County, the Čakovec pozoj was said to dwell beneath the city, with its head under the church and tail under the town square, or vice versa, and it could only be gotten rid of by a grabancijaš (a "wandering scholar", glossed as a "black [magic] student").Template:Sfnp

The pozoj is also known in Slovenia, and according to legend there is one living underneath Zagreb, causing an earthquake whenever it shrugs.Template:Sfnp Poet Template:Interlanguage link (1866) has published some tales concerning the pozoj in the Slovenski glasnik magazine, which also connected the creature to the črne škole dijak ("black school student"),[44] which other Slovene sources call črnošolec ("sorcerer's apprentice"),Template:Sfnp and which some equate with a grabancijaš dijak[45]

Dragons in Slovenia are generally negative in nature, and usually appear in relation with St. George.[46] The Slovene god-hero Kresnik is known as a dragonslayer.[47]

Representations

File:Coat of Arms of Moscow.svg
Coat of arms of Moscow

There are natural and man-made structures that have dragon lore attached to them. There are also representations in sculpture and painting. In iconography, Saint George and the Dragon is prominent in Slavic areas. The dragon is a common motif in heraldry, and the coat of arms of a number of cities or families depict dragons.

The Dragon Bridge (Template:Langx) in Ljubljana, Slovenia depicts dragons associated with the city or said to be the city's guardians,[48] and the city's coat of arms features a dragon (representing the one slain by Kresnik).[47]

The coat of arms of Moscow also depicts a St George (symbolizing Christianity) killing the Dragon (symbolizing the Golden Horde).[49][50]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Some prehistoric structures, notably the Serpent's Wall near Kyiv, have been associated with dragons as symbols of foreign peoples.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

In popular culture

See also

File:Blason ville si Ljubljana (Slovénie).svg
Coats of arms of Ljubljana

Explanatory notes

Template:Notelist

References

Citations

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  1. ↑ "Ypatingas gyvatės ir žemės ryšys matomas užkalbėjim ų tekstuose, visoje tautosakos tradicijoje ir rus. змея etim ologijoje — šio žodžio pradinė reikšmė yra 'žeminis, šliaužiantis po žeme' ir kilęs iš земля". Zavjalova, Marija. "Lietuvių ir rusų užkalbėjimų nuo gyvatės pasaulio modelių palyginimas". In: Tautosakos darbai. 1998, t. 9 (16). p. 63.
  2. ↑ "Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Template:Cite EB1911
  6. ↑ Тугарин // Мифологический Словарь / Ed. Елеазар Мелетинский. — М.: Советская Энциклопедия, 1991.
  7. ↑ Levkievskaya (1999) "Script error: No such module "URL".Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Demonological folklore, Slavyanskiye drevnosti 2:
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Template:Isbn
  9. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ a b "Template:Plainlink", Template:Harvp.
  11. ↑ Template:Harvp, p. 161, note 39, stating that Vasmer concurs.
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Aleksey Khomyakov (editor): Материалы для сравнит. словъ. — Saint Petersburg: Изд. Академіи наукъ (Academy of Sciences). — Volume 2.
  14. ↑ "Ivan Popyalof", Template:Harvp.
  15. ↑ Template:Wikisourcelang-inline
  16. ↑ Template:Wikisourcelang-inline
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". JSTOR 41229340 Template:In lang
  20. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Template:Isbn
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".; reissued: (1866), Hermannstadt, A. Schmiedicke
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Template:Harvp: When the monster lowers his tail into the river or lake, he 'takes up' the water which he uses to make floods.
  24. ↑ Marian (1879): "Cînd voiesc Solomonarii să se suie în nori, iau friul cel de aur şi se duc la un lac fără de fund sau la o altă apă mare, unde ştiu ei că locuiesc balaurii [With these [golden] reins, the Solomonari rein their dragons called balaurii that they use instead of horses]", quoted in: Hasdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu; Brâncuș, Grigore (1976) edd., Etymologicum Magnum Romaniae 3, p. 438.
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Template:Harvp: "Unlike the lamia and hala which were always malevolent.. zmey was seen mainly as a protector".
  27. ↑ Template:Harvp: "In the majority of folksongs these creatures [zmei, samodivi, samovili, etc.] are quite agreeable,.. The exception is the lamiá".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Template:Harvp: Bulgarian lamia is the "enemy of the kind dragon (zmej)", and a list is given of the "corresponding demon, in "other parts of these Balkan Slavic zones". Also Plotnikova (2006), "Template:Plainlink", p. 216.
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Template:Harvp, "Zlatna jabuka i devet paunica Златна јабука и девет пауница", pp. 15–26
  32. ↑ Template:Harvp, "Baš Čelik Баш-Челик", pp. 185–205
  33. ↑ "Bash Tchelik or Real Steel".
  34. ↑ Template:Harvp Boyadzhieva (1931), cited by Template:Harvp
  35. ↑ a b c d Template:Cite thesis
  36. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1"., after Auguste Dozon.
  37. ↑ Template:Harvp
  38. ↑ a b Template:Harvp Narodna vyara i religiozni narodni obichai], p. 596 Song collected from Vlesovo near Burgas.
  39. ↑ Benovska-Sabkhova, Milena (1995) Змеят в българския фолклор [Serpents in Bulgarian Folklore], pp. 47–50, cited by Template:Harvp
  40. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  41. ↑ Template:Harvp citing Template:Harvp
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ Template:Harvp, p. 132–133, note 16, citing Banović, Stjepan (1918), "Vjerovanja (Zaostrog u Dalmaciji)", Zbornik za narodni život i običaje Južnih Slavena 23, p. 213.
  44. ↑ "XI. Pozoj" in: Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., "five legends" according to Template:Harvp's count.
  45. ↑ Grafenauer, Ivan (1956), p. 324, cited by Template:Harvp
  46. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  47. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ Soboleva, N. A. (1998), Yu.A. Polyakova (preface), Гербы городов России, [Coats of arms of Russian cities], Moscow, Profizdat, p. 70. Template:ISBN.
  50. ↑ Soboleva, N. A. (2002), Российская государственная символика: история и современность [Russian State Symbols: History and Modernity], Moscow, Vlados, p. 43. Template:ISBN.

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Bibliography

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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". [Translation of Template:Harvp]
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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".. JSTOR 537147
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  • Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". [Translation of Template:Harvp]
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Further reading

Template:Slavic mythology

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