Reusable spacecraft

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File:STS-126 Endeavour landing.jpg
Space Shuttle Endeavour landing from orbit on STS-126, its 22nd spaceflight

Reusable spacecraft are spacecraft capable of repeated launch, atmospheric reentry, and landing or splashdown. This contrasts with expendable spacecraft which are designed to be discarded after use. Agencies operating reusable spacecraft aim to have lower costs and higher flight frequencies.[1]

Reusable spacecraft may be crewed or uncrewed and orbital or sub-orbital. Examples include spaceplanes such as the Space Shuttle and the Boeing X-37B, and space capsules such as the SpaceX Dragon. The Blue Origin New Shepard is an example of a sub-orbital spacecraft.

History

File:Gemini paraglider.JPG
Gemini paraglider during tests at Edwards Air Force Base in August 1964; glider landings were canceled in favor of parachute splashdowns.

On 17 July 1962, the North American X-15 rocket plane reached an altitude of 95.9km on a sub-orbital flight. In 1963, the X-15 completed two flights above 100km.[2] These marked the first spaceflights with a reusable vehicle.Template:Efn The Gemini SC-2 capsule followed, making a sub-orbital flight in 1965 and another sub-orbital flight in 1966.[3]

The first spacecraft to be reused in orbit was the Soviet VA spacecraft, a capsule that was part of the larger TKS spacecraft. A VA capsule that launched in 1977 was reflown in 1978.[4]

The Space Shuttle was the first orbital spacecraft designed for reuse according to NASA, and first launched in 1981.[5] Five orbiters would launch 135 times before the vehicle's retirement in 2011. Space Shuttle Discovery set the record of 39 spaceflights with a single spacecraft in 2011.[6] The Space Shuttle program, however, faced criticism that it failed to reduce the cost of access to space and had safety concerns following the Challenger and Columbia disasters.[7][8]

The SpaceX Dragon 1 first flew in 2010 and became the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to be recovered from orbit. In 2012, Dragon became the first commercial vehicle to attach to the International Space Station (ISS), after which it conducted regular cargo resupply flights for NASA.[9] Its first reuse was in 2017,[10] and the vehicle led to the development of the Dragon 2, which first reached orbit in 2019. Dragon 2 carries both cargo and crew, and has been described as the most cost-effective spacecraft ever used by NASA.[11] In 2021, Dragon 2 conducted the first orbital flight with only private astronauts onboard.[12]

SpaceShipOne, another rocket plane, completed the first private sub-orbital spaceflight in 2004 and led to the development of SpaceShipTwo. The Blue Origin New Shepard capsule conducts commercial sub-orbital spaceflights, as did SpaceShipTwo.Template:Efn

Development flights for SpaceX Starship test vehicles began in 2019. Starship is intended to be both a fully reusable spacecraft and launch vehicle.Template:Efn Starship's first integrated launch with its booster was in 2023, and it reached space the same year. In 2024, Starship successfully reentered the atmosphere and completed propulsive splashdowns in the Indian Ocean, although since January 2025Template:Dated maintenance category (articles)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". it has not been recovered from space intact.

Design

File:NASA’s SpaceX Crew-5 Splashdown (NHQ202303110017).jpg
Crew Dragon Endurance being recovered after its second flight

Reusable spacecraft must survive reentry and safely return to the surface. The mass of any hardware dedicated for this reduces potential payload mass.

Atmospheric entry

Orbital spacecraft initiate a deorbit burn and orient themselves for atmospheric entry. The Boeing Starliner and Orion discard their service modules, including most of their maneuvering engines. The SpaceX Dragon discards its trunk, which includes its solar panels and radiators, but retains its Draco engines in the capsule.[13] The Space Shuttle was notable for recovering the entire spacecraft.

In general, around 15% of the landed weight of a vehicle is heat shielding.[14] Thermal protection systems (TPS) can be made of a variety of materials, including reinforced carbon-carbon and ablative materials.[15] Historically, these materials were first developed on ballistic missile reentry vehicles. However, the requirements of reusable space systems differ from those of single use reentry vehicles, especially with regards to heat shield requirements. In particular the need for durable high emissivity coatings that can withstand multiple thermal cycles constitutes a key requirement in the development of new reusable spacecraft. Current materials for such high emissivity coatings include transition metal disilicides.[16]

Ablative heat shields are reliable, but are heavy and diminished with use. Reinforced carbon-carbon heat tiles such as those used on the Space Shuttle are fragile, contributing to the Columbia disaster. The Space Shuttle used the LI-900 material.

Landing and refurbishment

Runway landings from orbit became prevalent with the introduction of the Space Shuttle. Spaceplanes that land horizontally on a runway require lifting surfaces and landing gear. Designs include the Space Shuttle's delta wing and the Dream Chaser's lifting body. Spaceplanes require access to a long enough runway, a necessary consideration for the Space Shuttle launch abort modes.

The first recoverable space capsules landed under parachute, either on land or by splashing down in a body of water. Ground landings require additional cushioning, which Starliner accomplishes with deployable airbags. This was considered for Orion as well, but was ruled out due to the extra mass required.[17] The sub-orbital New Shepard uses retro-rockets to slow down just before touchdown, a technique that has been used by the expendable Soyuz since the 1960s. Splashing down allows the water to cushion the spacecraft, but exposure to salt water can have adverse effects on the vehicle.[18][19] Despite this, SpaceX began regularly reusing Dragon capsules after splashdown.[20]

Dragon 2 was originally designed to propusively land using its SuperDraco engines; however, propulsive landings for Dragon were canceledTemplate:Efn and Dragon 2 also uses parachutes to splashdown in the ocean.[21] Starship is designed to propulsively land using its Raptor engines. It aims to be "caught" by the launch tower, as is done for the Super Heavy booster. This eliminates the need for traditional landing legs on the vehicle and aims to lower the turnaround time between launches.[22]

After a spacecraft is recovered, it may need to be refurbished before its next flight. Depending on the spacecraft design, this process may be lengthy and expensive, and there may be a limit to how many times a spacecraft can be refurbished before it has to be retired.[23]

List of reusable spacecraft

Template:Spaceflight sidebar

Operational

Vehicle Origin Manufacturer Orbital or sub-orbital Crew capacity Reuse Recovery method First spaceflight
Dragon 2 Script error: No such module "flag". SpaceX Orbital 4-7 (crew)[24]
0 (cargo) 		Partial Parachute splashdown 2019 (crew)[25]
2020 (cargo)[26]
New Shepard Script error: No such module "flag". Blue Origin Sub-orbital 6 Full Parachute landing 2015 [27]
X-37B Script error: No such module "flag". Boeing Orbital — FullTemplate:Efn Runway 2010[28]
Starliner Script error: No such module "flag". Boeing Orbital 4 Partial Parachute landing 2019[29]
Orion Script error: No such module "flag". Lockheed Martin (Crew Module)
Airbus Defense and Space (Service Module) 		Orbital 4 Partial Parachute splashdown 2014[30]
Shenlong Template:China Orbital — Runway 2020[31]

Under development

Vehicle Origin Manufacturer Orbital or sub-orbital Crew capacity Reuse Recovery method Expected spaceflight
Dream Chaser Script error: No such module "flag". Sierra Space Orbital 7 (crew)
0 (cargo) 		Partial Runway TBA (crew)
2025 (cargo)
Starship Script error: No such module "flag". SpaceX Orbital 100 (crew)
0 (cargo) 		Full Propulsive landing 2025Template:Efn
Space Rider Script error: No such module "flag". Avio and Thales Alenia Space Orbital - Partial Parachute landing 2025
Mengzhou Template:China CAST Orbital 3-7 Partial Parachute landing 2020Template:Efn
RLV-TD Script error: No such module "flag". - Runway
Orel Script error: No such module "flag". RKK Energia Orbital 4-6 Partial 2028
File:Crew vehicle comparison.jpg
Comparison of Soyuz, Starliner, Crew Dragon, Orion, and Susie.

Retired

Vehicle Origin Manufacturer Orbital or sub-orbital Crew capacity Reuse Recovery method First Spaceflight Retired
X-15 Script error: No such module "flag". North American Aviation Sub-orbital 1 Full Runway 1962[2]Template:Efn 1968
Gemini Script error: No such module "flag". McDonnell Aircraft OrbitalTemplate:Efn 2 Partial Parachute splashdown 1964[32] 1966
VA spacecraft Script error: No such module "flag". NPO Mashinostroyeniya Orbital —Template:Efn Partial Parachute 1976[33] 1985
Space Shuttle Script error: No such module "flag". Rockwell International Orbital 8 Full Runway 1981[34] 2011
BuranTemplate:Efn Script error: No such module "flag". Orbital 10Template:Efn Full Runway 1988[35] 1988
SpaceShipOne Script error: No such module "flag". Scaled Composites Sub-orbital 1 Full Runway 2004[36] 2004
Dragon 1 Script error: No such module "flag". SpaceX Orbital — Partial Parachute splashdown 2010[37] 2020
SpaceShipTwo Script error: No such module "flag". Scaled Composites & The Spaceship Company Sub-orbital 6 Full Runway 2018[38]Template:Efn 2024

Proposed

Canceled

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

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  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  16. ↑ High emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramics for reusable space systems Template:Webarchive Corrosion Science 2019
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  32. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  36. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  37. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". Template:PD-notice
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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