Ndu languages
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The Ndu languages are the best known family of the Sepik languages of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. Ndu is the word for 'man' in the languages that make up this group. The languages were first identified as a related family by Kirschbaum in 1922.
Along with the Arapesh languages, Ndu languages are among the best documented languages in the Sepik basin, with comprehensive grammars available for many languages.[1]
A diagnostic innovative feature in the Ndu languages is the replacement of the proto-Sepik pronoun *wun ‘I’ with proto-Ndu *an ~ *na.[1]
Languages
Abelam is the most populous language, with about 45,000 speakers, though Iatmül is better known to the outside world. There are eight to twelve Ndu languages; Usher (2020) counts nine:[2]
- Ngala
- Ndu proper
Also sometimes distinguished are Keak (close to Iatmul or Sos Kundi), Kwasengen (or Hanga Hundi, close to Ambulas), Burui (close to Gai Kundi), and Sengo.
Phonology
Most Sepik and neighboring languages have systems of three vowels, Script error: No such module "IPA"., that are distinct only in height. Phonetic Script error: No such module "IPA". are a result of palatal and labial assimilation of Script error: No such module "IPA". to adjacent consonants. The Ndu languages may take this reduction a step further: In these languages, Script error: No such module "IPA". is used as an epenthetic vowel to break up consonant clusters in compound words. Within words, Script error: No such module "IPA". only occurs between similar consonants, and seems to be explicable as epenthesis there as well, so that the only underlying vowels that need to be assumed are Script error: No such module "IPA".. That is, the Ndu languages may be a rare case of a two-vowel system, the others being the Arrernte and Northwest Caucasian languages. However, contrasting analyses of these same languages may posit a dozen vowel monophthongs.[3]
For Ndu languages, the glottalized low vowel Script error: No such module "IPA". is often written as Script error: No such module "IPA".. This does not signify Script error: No such module "IPA". followed by a glottal stop and another Script error: No such module "IPA"..[1]
Morphology
Ndu languages mark first and second person possessors with -n, and third person possessors with -k.[1]
Ndu languages make use of the general locative case suffix -mb (-m in Manambu):[1]
Ndu languages have two dative-type case markers, with the forms and meanings varying across languages:[1]
- -t (-r in Manambu): allative meaning (‘to’ or ‘toward’)
- -k: benefactive (beneficiary or recipient) meaning
Examples of dative case markers in Ambulas and Manambu:[1]
Dative case markers are also used to mark animate objects of transitive verbs, which is a Sepik-Ramu areal feature. An example of the Ambulas allative case marker -t:[1]
Proto-language
Template:Infobox proto-language
Pronouns
Reconstructed proto-Ndu pronouns by Foley (2005):
sg du pl 1 *wɨn *an *nan 2m *mɨn *mpɨr *ŋkɨwr 2f *ɲɨn 3m *ntɨ *ntəy 3f *lɨ
Note that there is a gender distinction for first-person pronouns.
Lexicon
A phonological reconstruction of proto-Ndu has been proposed by Foley (2005). Lexical reconstructions from Foley (2005) are listed below.[4] The homeland of proto-Ndu is located just upstream of Ambunti.[1]
Proto-Ndu reconstructions by Foley (2005)Template:Category handlerTemplate:Category handler[<span title="Script error: No such module "string".">note: not all words are relevant, and there is no indication which belong to the cognate sets]Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". gloss proto-Ndu Manambu Iatmul Abelam Sawos Boiken Ngala one *nək nək kɨta nek kɨtak napə nək man *ntɨw ntiw ntɨw ntɨw tɨw riw water *ŋkɨw ŋkɨw ŋkɨw ŋkɨw ŋkɨw kɨw ŋkɨw rain *mayt war mayk mac wirɨ macɲ mac fire *ya ya ya ya hwɨypa ya sun *ɲa ɲə ɲa ɲa ɲa ɲa moon *mpapmɨw mpapɨw mpwap mpapmɨw pwapwə kamwɨ house *ŋkəy wɨy ŋkəy ŋkəy ŋkay kəy ŋkəy breast *mɨwɲ mɨwɲ mɨpə mɨwɲə mwɨyɲ mɨwɲ tooth *nɨmpɨy ɨwk nɨmpɨy nɨmpɨy nɨmpɨy nɨmpɨy bone *apə ap avə apə yapə ampɨ tongue *tɨkŋa tɨkalɨr tɨkat tɨkŋalɨn tɨkŋalɨ tɨkan eye *mɨyR mɨyr mɨynɨy mɨynɨy mɨynɨy mɨyl nose *tam(w)ə tam tamə tamə tamə tamwə leg *man man man man man man rawɨ ear *wan wan wan wan wan tree *mɨy mɨy mɨy mɨy mɨy mɨy name *cɨ cɨ cɨ ɨy cɨ cɨ pig *mp(w)al mpar mpak mpalɨ pwalɨ mpwal dog *wac, *war ac warə wacə warə pyəp snake *kampwəy kampay kampwəy kampwəy hampwəy mapwɨcɨ mosquito *kɨvɨy kɨvɨy kɨvyə kwɨyə mɨkɨycɨ cɨvyə see *vɨ vɨ vɨ vɨ vɨ təyf eat *kɨ kɨ kɨ kə hə kɨ go *yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ yɨ come *ya ya ya ya ya ya sit *rə rɨ rɨ rə rə yəlkɨy stand *rap(m) rap rap rapm rapm
References
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- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Ndu–Nggala, New Guinea World
- ↑ Gerd Jendraschek (2008) "The vowel system of Iatmul: emerging phonemes and unexpected contrasts" Template:Webarchive
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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- William A. Foley (2005). "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik–Ramu basin." In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Pacific Linguistics 572. 109-144. Canberra: Australian National University.
- Donald C. Laycock (1965). The Ndu language family (Sepik District, New Guinea). Pacific Linguistics C-1. Canberra: Australian National University. Script error: No such module "CS1 identifiers".