Modern Hebrew

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Modern Hebrew (Template:Langx, Script error: No such module "IPA". or Script error: No such module "IPA".), also known as Israeli Hebrew or simply Hebrew, is the standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today. It is the only surviving Canaanite language, as well as one of the oldest languages still spoken as a native language, on account of Hebrew being attested since the 2nd millennium BC.[1][2] It uses the Hebrew Alphabet, an abjad script written from right-to-left. The current standard was codified as part of the revival of Hebrew in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and now serves as the sole official and national language of the State of Israel,[3] where it is predominantly spoken by over 9 million people. Thus, Modern Hebrew is near universally regarded as the most successful instance of language revitalization in history.[4][5]

A Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew was spoken since antiquity as the vernacular of the Jews until around the 3rd century BCE, when it was supplanted by a western dialect of the Aramaic language, the local or dominant languages of the regions Jews migrated to, and later Judeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Spanish, Yiddish, and other Jewish languages.[6] Although Hebrew continued to be used for Jewish liturgy, poetry and literature, and written correspondence,[7] it became extinct as a spoken language.

By the late 19th century, Russian-Jewish linguist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda had begun a popular movement to revive Hebrew as an everyday language, motivated by his desire to preserve Hebrew literature and a distinct Jewish nationality in the context of Zionism.[8][9][10] Soon after, a large number of Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish speakers were murdered in the Holocaust[11] or fled to Israel, and many speakers of Judeo-Arabic emigrated to Israel in the Jewish exodus from the Muslim world, where many would adapt to Modern Hebrew.[12]

Currently, Hebrew is spoken by approximately 9–10 million people, counting native, fluent, and non-fluent speakers.[13][14] Some 6 million of these speak it as their native language, the overwhelming majority of whom are Jews who were born in Israel or immigrated during early childhood. The rest is split: 2 million are immigrants to Israel; 1.5 million are Israeli Arabs, whose first language is usually Arabic; and half a million are expatriate Israelis or diaspora Jews.

Under Israeli law, the organization that officially directs the development of Modern Hebrew is the Academy of the Hebrew Language, headquartered at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Name

The most common scholarly term for the language is "Modern Hebrew" (Script error: No such module "Lang".). Most people refer to it simply as "Hebrew" (Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA".).[15]

The term "Modern Hebrew" has been described as "somewhat problematic"[16] as it implies unambiguous periodization from Biblical Hebrew.[16] Template:Ill (חיים רוזן) supported the now widely used[16] term "Israeli Hebrew" on the basis that it "represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew".[15][17] In 1999, Israeli linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposed the term "Israeli" to represent the multiple origins of the language.[18]Template:Rp[15]

Background

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The history of the Hebrew language can be divided into four major periods:[19]

Jewish contemporary sources describe Hebrew flourishing as a spoken language in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, during about 1200 to 586 BCE.[20] Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew remained a spoken vernacular following the Babylonian captivity, when Old Aramaic became the predominant international language in the region.

Hebrew died out as a vernacular language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining after the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE, which devastated the population of Judea. After the exile, Hebrew became restricted to liturgical and literary use.[21]

Revival

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".Hebrew had been spoken at various times and for many purposes throughout the Diaspora. During the Old Yishuv, it had developed into a spoken lingua franca among Palestinian Jews.[22] Eliezer Ben-Yehuda then led a revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue in the late 19th century and early 20th century.

Modern Hebrew used Biblical Hebrew morphemes, Mishnaic spelling and grammar, and Sephardic pronunciation. Many idioms and calques were made from Yiddish.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Its acceptance by the early Jewish immigrants to Ottoman Palestine was caused primarily by support from the organisations of Edmond James de Rothschild in the 1880s and the official status it received in the 1922 constitution of the British Mandate for Palestine.[23][24][25][26] Ben-Yehuda codified and planned Modern Hebrew using 8,000 words from the Bible and 20,000 words from rabbinical commentaries. Many new words were borrowed from Arabic, due to the language's common Semitic roots with Hebrew, but changed to fit Hebrew phonology and grammar, for example the words Template:Transliteration (sing.) and Template:Transliteration (pl.) are now applied to 'socks', a diminutive of the Arabic Template:Transliteration ('socks').[27][28] In addition, early Jewish immigrants, borrowing from the local Arabs, and later immigrants from Arab lands introduced many nouns as loanwords from Arabic (such as nana, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, lubiya, hummus, Template:Transliteration, Template:Transliteration, etc.), as well as much of Modern Hebrew's slang. Despite Ben-Yehuda's fame as the renewer of Hebrew, the most productive renewer of Hebrew words was poet Haim Nahman Bialik.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

One of the phenomena seen with the revival of the Hebrew language is that old meanings of nouns were occasionally changed for altogether different meanings, such as bardelas (Script error: No such module "Lang"., a loanword from Template:Langx), which in Mishnaic Hebrew meant 'hyena',[29] but in Modern Hebrew it now means 'cheetah'; or shezīf (Script error: No such module "Lang".) which is now used for 'plum', but formerly meant 'jujube'.[30] The word Template:Transliteration (formerly 'cucumbers')[31] is now applied to a variety of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo var. cylindrica), a plant native to the New World. Another example is the word Template:Transliteration (Script error: No such module "Lang".), which now denotes a street or a road, but is actually an Aramaic adjective meaning 'trodden down' or 'blazed', rather than a common noun. It was originally used to describe a blazed trail.[32][33] The flower Anemone coronaria, called in Modern Hebrew Template:Transliteration (Script error: No such module "Lang".), was formerly called in Hebrew Template:Transliteration ('the king's flower').[34][35]

Classification

Modern Hebrew is classified as an Afroasiatic language of the Semitic family, within the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic subgroup.[36][37][38][39] While Modern Hebrew is largely based on Mishnaic and Biblical Hebrew as well as Sephardi and Ashkenazi liturgical and literary tradition from the Medieval and Haskalah eras and retains its Semitic character in its morphology and in much of its syntax,[40][41]Script error: No such module "Unsubst". some scholars posit that Modern Hebrew represents a fundamentally new linguistic system, not directly continuing any previous linguistic state, though this is not the consensus among scholars.[42]

Modern Hebrew is considered to be a koiné language based on historical layers of Hebrew that incorporates foreign elements, mainly those introduced during the most critical revival period between 1880 and 1920, as well as new elements created by speakers through natural linguistic evolution.[42][36] A minority of scholars argue that the revived language had been so influenced by various substrate languages that it is genealogically a hybrid with Indo-European.[43][44][45][46] These theories are controversial and have not been met with general acceptance, and the consensus among a majority of scholars is that Modern Hebrew, despite its non-Semitic influences, can correctly be classified as a Semitic language.[37][47] Although Modern Hebrew has more of the features attributed to Standard Average European than Biblical Hebrew, it is still quite distant, and has fewer such features than Modern Standard Arabic.[48]

Alphabet

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet, which is an abjad, or consonant-only script of 22 letters based on the "square" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script. A cursive script is used in handwriting. When necessary, vowels are indicated by diacritic marks above or below the letters known as Niqqud, or by use of Matres lectionis, which are consonantal letters used as vowels. Further diacritics like Dagesh and Sin and Shin dots are used to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g. bet/vet, shin/sin). The letters "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />צ׳‎", "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ג׳‎", "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ז׳‎", each modified with a Geresh, represent the consonants Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink, Template:IPAblink. The consonant Template:IPAblink may also be written as "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />תש‎" and "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />טש‎". Template:IPAblink is represented interchangeably by a simple vav "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ו‎", non-standard double vav "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />וו‎" and sometimes by non-standard geresh modified vav "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ו׳‎".

Name Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration Template:Transliteration
Printed letter Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script Template:Script
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Cursive letter File:Hebrew letter Alef handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Bet handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Gimel handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Daled handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter He handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Vav handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Zayin handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Het handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Tet handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Yud handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Kaf handwriting.svg
File:Hebrew letter Kaf-final handwriting.svg 		File:Hebrew letter Lamed handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Mem handwriting.svg
File:Hebrew letter Mem-final handwriting.svg 		File:Hebrew letter Nun handwriting.svg
File:Hebrew letter Nun-final handwriting.svg 		File:Hebrew letter Samekh handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Ayin handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Pe handwriting.svg
File:Hebrew letter Pe-final handwriting.svg 		File:Hebrew letter Tsadik handwriting.svg
File:Hebrew letter Tsadik-final handwriting.svg 		File:Hebrew letter Kuf handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Resh handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Shin handwriting.svg File:Hebrew letter Taf handwriting.svg
Pronunciation Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Script error: No such module "IPA".Template:IPA link~Template:IPA linkScript error: No such module "IPA". Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink, Script error: No such module "IPA".Template:IPA link(Template:IPA link)Script error: No such module "IPA". Template:IPAslink, Script error: No such module "IPA".Template:IPA linkScript error: No such module "IPA". Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Script error: No such module "IPA".Template:IPA link~Template:IPA linkScript error: No such module "IPA"., Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink Script error: No such module "IPA".Template:IPA link~Template:IPA linkScript error: No such module "IPA". Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink Template:IPAslink
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Phonology

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". Modern Hebrew has fewer phonemes than Biblical Hebrew but it has developed its own phonological complexity. Israeli Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants, depending on whether the speaker has pharyngeals. It has 5 to 10 vowels, depending on whether diphthongs and vowels are counted, varying with the speaker and the analysis.

Morphology

Modern Hebrew morphology (formation, structure, and interrelationship of words in a language) is essentially Biblical.[49] Modern Hebrew showcases much of the inflectional morphology of the classical upon which it was based. In the formation of new words, all verbs and the majority of nouns and adjectives are formed by the classically Semitic devices of triconsonantal roots (shoresh) with affixed patterns (mishkal). Mishnaic attributive patterns are often used to create nouns, and Classical patterns are often used to create adjectives. Blended words are created by merging two bound stems or parts of words.

Syntax

Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote". The syntax of Modern Hebrew is mainly Mishnaic[49] but also shows the influence of different contact languages to which its speakers have been exposed during the revival period and over the past century.

Word order

The word order of Modern Hebrew is predominately SVO (subject–verb–object). Biblical Hebrew was originally VSO (verb–subject–object), but drifted into SVO.[50] In the modern language, a sentence may correctly be arranged in any order but its meaning might be hard to understand unless אֶת is used.Template:Clarify Modern Hebrew maintains classical syntactic properties associated with VSO languages:Template:Clarify it is prepositional, rather than postpositional, in marking case and adverbial relations, auxiliary verbs precede main verbs; main verbs precede their complements, and noun modifiers (adjectives, determiners other than the definite article Script error: No such module "Lang". (Template:Transliteration), and noun adjuncts) follow the head noun; and in genitive constructions, the possessee noun precedes the possessor. Moreover, Modern Hebrew allows and sometimes requires sentences with a predicate initial.

Sample text

From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Modern Hebrew[51] Transliteration English[52]
Template:Rtl-para Template:Translit All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Lexicon

Modern Hebrew has expanded its vocabulary effectively to meet the needs of casual vernacular, of science and technology, of journalism and belles-lettres. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann:

<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />

The number of attested Biblical Hebrew words is 8198, of which some 2000 are hapax legomena (the number of Biblical Hebrew roots, on which many of these words are based, is 2099). The number of attested Rabbinic Hebrew words is less than 20,000, of which (i) 7879 are Rabbinic par excellence, i.e. they did not appear in the Old Testament (the number of new Rabbinic Hebrew roots is 805); (ii) around 6000 are a subset of Biblical Hebrew; and (iii) several thousand are Aramaic words which can have a Hebrew form. Medieval Hebrew added 6421 words to (Modern) Hebrew. The approximate number of new lexical items in Israeli is 17,000 (cf. 14,762 in Even-Shoshan 1970 [...]). With the inclusion of foreign and technical terms [...], the total number of Israeli words, including words of biblical, rabbinic and medieval descent, is more than 60,000.[53]Template:Rp

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Loanwords

Modern Hebrew has loanwords from Arabic (both from the local Palestinian dialect and from the dialects of Jewish immigrants from Arab countries), Aramaic, Yiddish, Judaeo-Spanish, German, Polish, Russian, English and other languages. Simultaneously, Israeli Hebrew makes use of words that were originally loanwords from the languages of surrounding nations from ancient times: Canaanite languages as well as Akkadian. Mishnaic Hebrew borrowed many nouns from Aramaic (including Persian words borrowed by Aramaic), as well as from Greek and to a lesser extent Latin.[54] In the Middle Ages, Hebrew made heavy semantic borrowing from Arabic, especially in the fields of science and philosophy. Here are typical examples of Hebrew loanwords:

loanword derivatives origin
Hebrew IPA meaning Hebrew IPA meaning language spelling meaning
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". goodbye   English bye
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". exhaust system   exhaust
system
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". DJ Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". to DJ to DJ
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". really!?   Arabic Script error: No such module "Lang". really!?
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". fun <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />כַּיֵּף‎ Script error: No such module "IPA". to have fun[w 1] Script error: No such module "Lang". pleasure
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". date Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". to date Script error: No such module "Lang". date, history
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". geek, wimp,
nerd, "square"		   Moroccan Arabic Template:Script/Arabic snot
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". dad   Aramaic <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />אבא‎ the father/my father
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". forthright   Ottoman Turkish Template:Script/Arabic
doğrı		 correct
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". orchard   Avestan Template:Script/Avestan garden
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". diagonal   Greek λοξός slope
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". curtain   Latin vēlum veil, curtain
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". shoddy job Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". to moonlight Russian халтура shoddy work[w 2]
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". mess Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". to make a mess балаган chaos[w 2]
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". directly/
essentially		   Yiddish Script error: No such module "Lang". goal
(Hebrew word, only pronunciation is Yiddish)
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". deep sleep Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". to sleep deeply Script error: No such module "Lang". snore
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". putty knife   German Spachtel putty knife
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". rubber Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". rubber band Gummi rubber
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". carbonated
beverage		   Turkish
from
French		 gazoz[w 3]
from
eau gazeuse		 carbonated
beverage
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". stupid woman   Ladino Script error: No such module "Lang".
postema		 inflamed wound[w 4]
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". architect Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". architecture Akkadian Script error: No such module "Lang". temple servant[w 5]
Script error: No such module "Lang". Script error: No such module "IPA". fleet   Ancient Egyptian Template:Transliteration ship

Template:Reflist

See also

References

Template:Reflist

Bibliography

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External links

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Template:Cite Q
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Solomon Birnbaum, Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache (4., erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3.
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Footnotes".; quote: "Most people refer to Israeli Hebrew simply as Hebrew. Hebrew is a broad term, which includes Hebrew as it was spoken and written in different periods of time and according to most of the researchers as it is spoken and written in Israel and elsewhere today. Several names have been proposed for the language spoken in Israel nowadays, Modern Hebrew is the most common one, addressing the latest spoken language variety in Israel (Berman 1978, Saenz-Badillos 1993:269, Coffin-Amir & Bolozky 2005, Schwarzwald 2009:61). The emergence of a new language in Palestine at the end of the nineteenth century was associated with debates regarding the characteristics of that language.... Not all scholars supported the term Modern Hebrew for the new language. Rosén (1977:17) rejected the term Modern Hebrew, since linguistically he claimed that 'modern' should represent a linguistic entity that should command autonomy towards everything that preceded it, while this was not the case in the new emerging language. He also rejected the term Neo-Hebrew, because the prefix 'neo' had been previously used for Mishnaic and Medieval Hebrew (Rosén 1977:15–16), additionally, he rejected the term Spoken Hebrew as one of the possible proposals (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén supported the term Israeli Hebrew as in his opinion it represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew, as well as its territorial independence (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén then adopted the term Contemporary Hebrew from Téne (1968) for its neutrality, and suggested the broadening of this term to Contemporary Israeli Hebrew (Rosén 1977:19)"
  16. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "Footnotes".; quote: The language with which we are concerned in this contribution is also known by the names Contemporary Hebrew and Modern Hebrew, both somewhat problematic terms as they rely on the notion of an unambiguous periodization separating Classical or Biblical Hebrew from the present-day language. We follow instead the now widely-used label coined by Rosén (1955), Israeli Hebrew, to denote the link between the emergence of a Hebrew vernacular and the emergence of an Israeli national identity in Israel/Palestine in the early twentieth century."
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Zuckermann, G. (1999), "Review of the Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary", International Journal of Lexicography, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 325-346
  19. ↑ Hebrew language Template:Webarchive Encyclopædia Britannica
  20. ↑ אברהם בן יוסף ,מבוא לתולדות הלשון העברית (Avraham ben-Yosef, Introduction to the History of the Hebrew Language), page 38, אור-עם, Tel Aviv, 1981.
  21. ↑ Sáenz-Badillos, Ángel and John Elwolde: "There is general agreement that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, baraitot and Tannaitic midrashim would be composed. The second stage begins with the Amoraim and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used in later rabbinic writings until the tenth century in, for example, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in midrashic and haggadic literature."
  22. ↑ Tudor Parfitt; The Contribution of the old Yishuv to the Revival of Hebrew, Journal of Semitic Studies, Volume XXIX, Issue 2, 1 October 1984, Pages 255–265, https://doi.org/10.1093/jss/XXIX.2.255 Template:Webarchive
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., "What would the future of Hebrew have been, had not the British Mandate in 1919 accepted it as one of the three official languages of Palestine, at a time when the number of people speaking Hebrew as an everyday language was less than 20,000?"
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".: "In retrospect, [Hobsbawm's] question should be rephrased, substituting the Rothschild house for the British state and the 1880s for 1919. For by the time the British conquered Palestine, Hebrew had become the everyday language of a small but well-entrenched community."
  25. ↑ Palestine Mandate (1922): "English, Arabic and Hebrew shall be the official languages of Palestine"
  26. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  27. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  28. ↑ Cf. Rabbi Hai Gaon's commentary on Mishnah Kelim 27:6, where Script error: No such module "Lang". (Template:Transliteration) was used formerly for the same, and had the equivalent meaning of the Arabic word Template:Transliteration ('stockings'; 'socks').
  29. ↑ Maimonides' commentary and Rabbi Ovadiah of Bartenura's commentary on Mishnah Baba Kama 1:4; Rabbi Nathan ben Abraham's Mishnah Commentary, Baba Metzia 7:9, s.v. Script error: No such module "Lang".; Sefer Arukh, s.v. Script error: No such module "Lang".; Zohar Amar, Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings, Kefar Darom 2015, pp. 177–178; 228
  30. ↑ Zohar Amar, Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings, Kfar Darom 2015, p. 157, s.v. Script error: No such module "Lang". Template:OCLC, explained to mean 'jujube' (Ziziphus jujuba); Solomon Sirilio's Commentary of the Jerusalem Talmud, on Kila'im 1:4, s.v. Script error: No such module "Lang"., which he explained to mean in Spanish Script error: No such module "Lang". ('jujubes'). See also Saul Lieberman, Glossary in Tosephta - based on the Erfurt and Vienna Codices (ed. M.S. Zuckermandel), Jerusalem 1970, s.v. Script error: No such module "Lang". (p. LXL), explained in German as meaning Script error: No such module "Lang". ('jujube').
  31. ↑ Thus explained by Maimonides in his Commentary on Mishnah Kila'im 1:2 and in Mishnah Terumot 2:6. See: Zohar Amar, Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings, Kefar Darom 2015, pp. 111, 149 (Hebrew) Template:OCLC; Zohar Amar, Agricultural Produce in the Land of Israel in the Middle Ages (Hebrew title: Script error: No such module "Lang".), Ben-Zvi Institute: Jerusalem 2000, p. 286 Template:ISBN (Hebrew)
  32. ↑ Compare Rashi's commentary on Exodus 9:17, where he says the word Template:Transliteration is translated in Aramaic Template:Transliteration ('a blazed trail'), the word Template:Transliteration being only an adjective or descriptive word, but not a common noun as it is used today. It is said that Ze'ev Yavetz (1847–1924) is the one who coined this modern Hebrew word for 'road'. See Haaretz, Contributions made by Ze'ev Yavetz Template:Webarchive; Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  33. ↑ Roberto Garvia, Esperanto and its Rivals, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015, p. 164
  34. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1"., s.v. citing Maimonides on Mishnah Kil'ayim 5:8
  35. ↑ Matar – Science and Technology On-line, the Common Anemone (in Hebrew)
  36. ↑ a b Template:E18
  37. ↑ a b Weninger, Stefan, Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet CE Watson, Gábor Takács, Vermondo Brugnatelli, H. Ekkehard Wolff et al. The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook. Berlin–Boston (2011).
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
  39. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  40. ↑ Robert Hetzron. (1987). "Hebrew". In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  41. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  42. ↑ a b Reshef, Yael. Revival of Hebrew: Grammatical Structure and Lexicon. Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics. (2013).
  43. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  44. ↑ Wexler, Paul, The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past: 1990.
  45. ↑ Izre'el, Shlomo (2003). "The Emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew." In: Benjamin H. Hary (ed.), Corpus Linguistics and Modern Hebrew: Towards the Compilation of The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH)", Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, The Chaim Rosenberg School of Jewish Studies, 2003, pp. 85–104.
  46. ↑ See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57–71.
  47. ↑ Yael Reshef. "The Re-Emergence of Hebrew as a National Language" in Weninger, Stefan, Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet CE Watson, Gábor Takács, Vermondo Brugnatelli, H. Ekkehard Wolff et al. (eds) The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin–Boston (2011). p. 551
  48. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  49. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Li, Charles N. Mechanisms of Syntactic Change. Austin: U of Texas, 1977. Print.
  51. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  52. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  53. ↑ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. Template:ISBN [1] Template:Webarchive
  54. ↑ The Latin "familia", from which English "family" is derived, entered Mishnaic Hebrew - and thence, Modern Hebrew - as "pamalya" (פמליה) meaning "entourage". (The original Latin "familia" referred both to a prominent Roman's family and to his household in general, including the entourage of slaves and freedmen which accompanied him in public - hence, both the English and the Hebrew one are derived from the Latin meaning.)


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