List of fusion experiments
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Experiments directed toward developing fusion power are invariably done with dedicated machines which can be classified according to the principles they use to confine the plasma fuel and keep it hot.
The major division is between magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. In magnetic confinement, the tendency of the hot plasma to expand is counteracted by the Lorentz force between currents in the plasma and magnetic fields produced by external coils. The particle densities tend to be in the range of Template:Val to Template:Val and the linear dimensions in the range of Template:Val. The particle and energy confinement times may range from under a millisecond to over a second, but the configuration itself is often maintained through input of particles, energy, and current for times that are hundreds or thousands of times longer. Some concepts are capable of maintaining a plasma indefinitely.
In contrast, with inertial confinement, there is nothing to counteract the expansion of the plasma. The confinement time is simply the time it takes the plasma pressure to overcome the inertia of the particles, hence the name. The densities tend to be in the range of Template:Val to Template:Val and the plasma radius in the range of 1 to 100 micrometers. These conditions are obtained by irradiating a millimeter-sized solid pellet with a nanosecond laser or ion pulse. The outer layer of the pellet is ablated, providing a reaction force that compresses the central 10% of the fuel by a factor of 10 or 20 to 103 or Template:Val times solid density. These microplasmas disperse in a time measured in nanoseconds. For a fusion power reactor, a repetition rate of several per second will be needed.
Magnetic confinement
Within the field of magnetic confinement experiments, there is a basic division between toroidal and open magnetic field topologies. Generally speaking, it is easier to contain a plasma in the direction perpendicular to the field than parallel to it. Parallel confinement can be solved either by bending the field lines back on themselves into circles or, more commonly, toroidal surfaces, or by constricting the bundle of field lines at both ends, which causes some of the particles to be reflected by the mirror effect. The toroidal geometries can be further subdivided according to whether the machine itself has a toroidal geometry, i.e., a solid core through the center of the plasma. The alternative is to dispense with a solid core and rely on currents in the plasma to produce the toroidal field.
Mirror machines have advantages in a simpler geometry and a better potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. They generally require higher magnetic fields than toroidal machines, but the biggest problem has turned out to be confinement. For good confinement there must be more particles moving perpendicular to the field than there are moving parallel to the field. Such a non-Maxwellian velocity distribution is, however, very difficult to maintain and energetically costly.
The mirrors' advantage of simple machine geometry is maintained in machines which produce compact toroids, but there are potential disadvantages for stability in not having a central conductor and there is generally less possibility to control (and thereby optimize) the magnetic geometry. Compact toroid concepts are generally less well developed than those of toroidal machines. While this does not necessarily mean that they cannot work better than mainstream concepts, the uncertainty involved is much greater.
Somewhat in a class by itself is the Z-pinch, which has circular field lines. This was one of the first concepts tried, but it did not prove very successful. Furthermore, there was never a convincing concept for turning the pulsed machine requiring electrodes into a practical reactor.
The dense plasma focus is a controversial and "non-mainstream" device that relies on currents in the plasma to produce a toroid. It is a pulsed device that depends on a plasma that is not in equilibrium and has the potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. Experiments are ongoing to test relatively new theories to determine if the device has a future.
Toroidal machine
Toroidal machines can be axially symmetric, like the tokamak and the reversed field pinch (RFP), or asymmetric, like the stellarator. The additional degree of freedom gained by giving up toroidal symmetry might ultimately be usable to produce better confinement, but the cost is complexity in the engineering, the theory, and the experimental diagnostics. Stellarators typically have a periodicity, e.g. a fivefold rotational symmetry. The RFP, despite some theoretical advantages such as a low magnetic field at the coils, has not proven very successful.
Tokamak
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Stellarator
| Device name | Status | Construction | Operation | Type | Location | Organisation | Major/minor radius | B-field | Purpose | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model A | Shut down | 1952–1953 | 1953–? | Figure-8 | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | First stellarator, table-top device | |
| Model B | Shut down | 1953–1954 | 1954–1959 | Figure-8 | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Development of plasma diagnostics | |
| Model B-1 | Shut down | ?–1959 | Figure-8 | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Yielded Template:Val plasma temperatures, showed cooling by X-ray radiation from impurities | ||
| Model B-2 | Shut down | 1957 | Figure-8 | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Electron temperatures up to Template:Val | ||
| Model B-3 | Shut down | 1957 | 1958– | Figure-8 | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Last figure-8 device, confinement studies of ohmically heated plasma | |
| Model B-64 | Shut down | 1955 | 1955 | Square | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | ? m/Template:Val | Template:Val | ||
| Model B-65 | Shut down | 1957 | 1957 | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | ||||
| Model B-66 | Shut down | 1958 | 1958–? | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | ||||
| Wendelstein 1-A | Shut down | 1960 | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Garching | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | ℓ=3 showed that stellarators can overcome Bohm diffusion, "Munich mystery" | ||
| Wendelstein 1-B | Shut down | 1960 | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Garching | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | ℓ=2 | ||
| Script error: No such module "anchor".Model C | Template:CRecurring →ST | 1957–1961 | 1961–1969 | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Suffered from large plasma losses by Bohm diffusion through "pump-out" | |
| L-1 | Shut down | 1963 | 1963–1971 | round | Template:Flagicon Moscow | Lebedev Physical Institute | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | First Soviet stellarator, overcame Bohm diffusion | |
| SIRIUS | Shut down | 1964–? | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Kharkiv | Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (KIPT) | |||||
| TOR-1 | Shut down | 1967 | 1967–1973 | Template:Flagicon Moscow | Lebedev Physical Institute | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | |||
| TOR-2 | Shut down | ? | 1967–1973 | Template:Flagicon Moscow | Lebedev Physical Institute | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | |||
| Uragan-1 | Shut down | 1960–1967 | 1967–? | Racetrack | Template:Flagicon Kharkiv | National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (NSC KIPT) | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Overcame Bohm-diffusion by a factor of 30 | |
| CLASP (Closed Line And Single Particle)[66] | Shut down | ? | 1967–? | Template:Flagicon Culham | United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study confinement of electrons in a high-shear stellarator | ||
| TWIST[66] | Shut down | ? | 1967–? | Template:Flagicon Culham | United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study turbulent heating | ||
| Proto-CLEO[66] | Shut down | ? | 1968–? | single-turn helical winding inside toroidal field conductors | Template:Flagicon Culham, Template:Flagicon Madison |
United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | confirmed plasma confinement times of neoclassical theory | |
| TORSO[66] | Shut down | ? | 1972–? | Ultimate torsatron | Template:Flagicon Culham | United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | ||
| CLEO[66] | Shut down | ? | 1974–? | Template:Flagicon Culham | United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study of particle transport and beta limits, reached similar performance as tokamaks | ||
| Wendelstein 2-A | Shut down | 1965–1968 | 1968–1974 | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon Garching | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Good plasma confinement | Wendelstein 2-A |
| Saturn[67] | Shut down | 1970 | 1970–? | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Kharkiv | Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | first Torsatron, ℓ=3, m=8 field periods, base for several torsatrons at KIPT | |
| Wendelstein 2-B | Shut down | ?–1970 | 1971–? | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon Garching | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Demonstrated similar performance as tokamaks | Wendelstein 2-B |
| Vint-20[68] | Shut down | 1972 | 1973–? | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Kharkiv | Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | single-pole ℓ=1, m=13 field periods | |
| L-2 | Shut down | ? | 1975–? | Template:Flagicon Moscow | Lebedev Physical Institute | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | |||
| WEGA (Wendelstein Experiment in Greifswald für die Ausbildung) | Template:CRecurring →HIDRA | 1972–1975 | 1975–2013 | Classical stellarator | Template:Flagicon Greifswald | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Test lower hybrid heating | WEGA |
| Wendelstein 7-A | Shut down | ? | 1975–1985 | Classical stellarator | Template:Flagicon Garching | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | First "pure" stellarator without plasma current, solved stellarator heating problem | |
| Heliotron-E | Shut down | ? | 1980–? | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | |||
| Heliotron-DR | Shut down | ? | 1981–? | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | |||
| Uragan-3 (Template:Interlanguage link multi)[69] | Operational | ? | 1982–?[70] M: 1990– |
Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Kharkiv | National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (NSC KIPT) | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | ? | |
| Auburn Torsatron (AT) | Shut down | ? | 1984–1990 | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Auburn | Auburn University | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Auburn Torsatron | |
| Wendelstein 7-AS | Shut down | 1982–1988 | 1988–2002 | Modular, advanced stellarator | Template:Flagicon Garching | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | First computer-optimized stellarator, first H-mode in a stellarator in 1992 | Wendelstein 7-AS |
| Advanced Toroidal Facility (ATF) | Shut down | 1984–1988[71] | 1988–1994 | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Oak Ridge | Oak Ridge National Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | First large American stellarator after Tokamak stampede, high-beta operation, >1h plasma operation | Advanced Toroidal Facility |
| Compact Helical System (CHS) | Shut down | ? | 1989–? | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon Toki | National Institute for Fusion Science | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | ||
| Compact Auburn Torsatron (CAT) | Shut down | ?–1990 | 1990–2000 | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Auburn | Auburn University | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study magnetic flux surfaces | Compact Auburn Torsatron |
| H-1 (Heliac-1)[72] | Operational | 1992– | Heliac | Template:Flagicon Canberra, Template:Flagicon |
Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering, Australian National University | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | shipped to China in 2017 | H-1NF plasma vessel | |
| TJ-K (Tokamak de la Junta Kiel)[73] | Operational | TJ-IU (1999) | 1994– | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Kiel, Stuttgart | University of Stuttgart | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | One helical and two vertical coil sets; Teaching; moved from Kiel to Stuttgart in 2005 | |
| TJ-II (Tokamak de la Junta II)[74] | Operational | 1991–1996 | 1997– | flexible Heliac | Template:Flagicon Madrid | National Fusion Laboratory, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study plasma in flexible configuration | CAD drawing of TJ-II |
| LHD (Large Helical Device)[75] | Operational | 1990–1998 | 1998– | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon Toki | National Institute for Fusion Science | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Demonstrated long-term operation of large superconducting coils | LHD cross section |
| HSX (Helically Symmetric Experiment)[76] | Operational | 1999– | Modular, quasi-helically symmetric | Template:Flagicon Madison | University of Wisconsin–Madison | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Investigate plasma transport in quasi-helically-symmetric field, similar to tokamaks | HSX with clearly visible non-planar coils | |
| Heliotron J[77] | Operational | 2000– | Heliotron | Template:Flagicon Kyoto | Institute of Advanced Energy | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study helical-axis heliotron configuration | ||
| Columbia Non-neutral Torus (CNT) | Operational | ? | 2004– | Circular interlocked coils | Template:Flagicon New York City | Columbia University | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Study of non-neutral (mostly electron) plasmas | |
| Uragan-2(M)[69] | Operational | 1988–2006 | 2006–[78] | Heliotron, Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Kharkiv | National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (NSC KIPT) | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | ℓ=2 Torsatron | |
| Quasi-poloidal stellarator (QPS)[79][80] | Template:BLACK | 2001–2007 | – | Modular | Template:Flagicon Oak Ridge | Oak Ridge National Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Stellarator research | Engineering drawing of the QPS |
| NCSX (National Compact Stellarator Experiment) | Template:BLACK | 2004–2008 | – | Helias | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | High-β stability | CAD drawing of NCSX |
| Compact Toroidal Hybrid (CTH) | Operational | ? | 2007?– | Torsatron | Template:Flagicon Auburn | Auburn University | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Hybrid stellarator/tokamak | CTH |
| Script error: No such module "anchor".HIDRA (Hybrid Illinois Device for Research and Applications)[81] | Operational | 2013–2014 (WEGA) | 2014– | ? | Template:Flagicon Urbana, IL | University of Illinois | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Stellarator and tokamak in one device, capable of long pulse steady-state operation; study plasma-wall interactions | HIDRA after its reassembly in Illinois |
| UST_2[82] | Operational | 2013 | 2014– | modular three period quasi-isodynamic | Template:Flagicon Madrid | Charles III University of Madrid | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | 3D-printed stellarator | UST_2 design concept |
| Wendelstein 7-X[83] | Operational | 1996–2022 | 2015– | Helias | Template:Flagicon Greifswald | Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | Steady-state plasma in large fully optimized stellarator | Schematic diagram of Wendelstein 7-X |
| SCR-1 (Stellarator of Costa Rica) | Operational | 2011–2015 | 2016– | Modular | Template:Flagicon Cartago | Costa Rica Institute of Technology | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | SCR-1 vacuum vessel drawing | |
| MUSE[84] | Operational | 2022–2023 | 2023– | Quasiaxi-symmetrical | Template:Flagicon Princeton | Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | First stellarator with permanent magnets | MUSE |
| CFQS (Chinese First Quasi-Axisymmetric Stellarator)[85] | Under construction | 2017– | Helias | Template:Flagicon Chengdu | Southwest Jiaotong University, National Institute for Fusion Science in Japan | Template:Val/Template:Val | Template:Val | m=2 quasi-axisymmetric stellarator, modular | CFQS coils and field | |
| EFPP (European Fusion Power Plant)[86] | Template:Planned | 2030 ? | 2045 ? | Helias | Template:Flagicon | Gauss Fusion | 7–Template:Val ? | Fusion power plant with 2–Template:Val output |
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Magnetic mirror
- Tabletop/Toytop, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
- DCX/DCX-2, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- OGRA (Odin GRAm neitronov v sutki, one gram of neutrons per day), Akademgorodok, Russia. A 20-meter-long pipe
- Baseball I/Baseball II Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
- 2X/2XIII/2XIII-B, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
- TMX, TMX-U Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
- MFTF Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA.
- Gas Dynamic Trap at Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, Akademgorodok, Russia.
Toroidal Z-pinch
- Perhapsatron (1953, USA)
- ZETA (Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly) (1957, United Kingdom)
Reversed field pinch (RFP)
- ETA-BETA II in Padua, Italy (1979–1989)
- RFX (Reversed-Field eXperiment), Consorzio RFX, Padova, Italy[87]
- MST (Madison Symmetric Torus), University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States[88]
- T2R, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
- TPE-RX, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan
- KTX (Keda Torus eXperiment) in China (since 2015)[89]
Spheromak
Field-reversed configuration (FRC)
- C-2 Tri Alpha Energy
- C-2U Tri Alpha Energy
- C-2W TAE Technologies
- LSX University of Washington
- IPA University of Washington
- HF University of Washington
- IPA- HF University of Washington
Other toroidal machines
- TMP (Tor s Magnitnym Polem, torus with magnetic field): A porcelain torus with major radius Template:Val, minor radius Template:Val, toroidal field of Template:Val and plasma current Template:Val, predecessor to the first tokamak (1955, USSR)
Open field lines
Plasma pinch
- Trisops – 2 facing theta-pinch guns
- FF-2B, Lawrenceville Plasma Physics, United States[90]
Levitated dipole
- Levitated Dipole Experiment (LDX), MIT/Columbia University, United States[91]
Inertial confinement
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Laser-driven
| Device name | Status | Construction | Operation | Description | Peak laser power | Pulse energy | Fusion yield | Location | Organisation | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 pi laser | Shut down | 196? | Semiconductor laser | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | |||
| Long path laser | Shut down | 1972 | 1972 | First ICF laser with neodymium doped glass (Nd:glass) as lasing medium | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | ||
| Single Beam System (SBS) "67" | Shut down | 1971-1973 | 1973 | Single-beam CO2 laser[92] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Los Alamos | LANL | ||
| Double Bounce Illumination System (DBIS) | Shut down | 1972-1974 | 1974-1990 | First private laser fusion effort, YAG laser, neutron yield Template:Val to Template:Val neutrons | Template:Val | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| ≈Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Ann Arbor, Michigan | KMS Fusion | File:Double Bounce System KMS Fusion 1974.png | |
| MERLIN (Medium Energy Rod Laser Incorporating Neodymium), N78 laser | Shut down | 1972-1975 | 1975-? | Nd:glass laser | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon RAF Aldermaston | AWE | File:MERLIN target chamber.jpg | |
| Cyclops laser | Shut down | 1975 | 1975 | Single-beam Nd:glass laser, prototype for Shiva[93] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | File:Cyclops laser 1975.jpg | |
| Janus laser | Shut down | 1974-1975 | 1975 | Two-beam Nd:glass laser demonstrated laser compression and thermonuclear burn of deuterium–tritium | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | File:Janus laser 1975.jpg | |
| Gemini laser, Dual-Beam Module (DBM) | Shut down | ≤ 1975 | 1976 | Two-beam CO2 laser, tests for Helios | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Los Alamos | LANL | ||
| Argus laser | Shut down | 1976 | 1976-1981 | Two-beam Nd:glass laser, advanced the study of laser-target interaction and paved the way for Shiva | Template:Val | Template:Val | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| ≈Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | File:Argus laser 1976.jpg |
| Vulcan laser (Versicolor Ultima Lux Coherens pro Academica Nostra)[94] | Operational | 1976-1977 | 1977- | 8-beam Nd:glass laser, highest-intensity focussed laser in the world in 2005[95] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Didcot | RAL | File:Green Lase.JPG | |
| Script error: No such module "anchor".Shiva laser | Shut down | 1977 | 1977-1981 | 20-beam Nd:glass laser; proof-of-concept for Nova; fusion yield of 1011 neutrons; found that its infrared wavelength of 1062 nm was too long to achieve ignition | Template:Val | Template:Val | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| ≈Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | File:Shiva laser target chamber.jpg |
| Script error: No such module "anchor".Helios laser, Eight-Beam System (EBS) | Shut down | 1975-1978 | 1978 | 8-beam CO2 laser; Media at Wikimedia Commons | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Los Alamos | LANL | File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 282 005 003 (16388751641).jpg | |
| HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) | Shut down | 1976-1979 | 1979-2009 | Two-beam Nd:glass laser | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Didcot | RAL | File:HELEN laser.jpg | |
| ISKRA-4 | Operational | -1979 | 1979- | 8-beam iodine gas laser, prototype for ISKRA-5[96] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Sarov | RFNC-VNIIEF | |
| Sprite laser[94] | Shut down | 1981-1983 | 1983-1995 | First high-power Krypton fluoride laser used for target irradiation, λ=Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Didcot | RAL | File:Sprite e-beam pumped amplifier cell 1982.jpg | |
| Gekko XII | Operational | 1983- | 12-beam, Nd:glass laser | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Osaka | Institute for Laser Engineering | |||
| Novette laser | Shut down | 1981-1983 | 1983-1984 | Nd:glass laser to validate the Nova design, first X-ray laser[97] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:FlagiconLivermore | LLNL | File:U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 281 004 001 (16315143010).jpg | |
| Antares laser, High Energy Gas Laser Facility (HEGLF) | Shut down | 1983[98] | 24-beam largest CO2 laser ever built. Missed goal of scientific fusion breakeven, because production of hot electrons in target plasma due to long 10.6 μm wavelength of laser resulted in poor laser/plasma energy coupling[97] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Los Alamos | LANL | |||
| PHAROS laser | Operational | 198? | Two-beam Nd:glass laser | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Washington D.C. | NRL | |||
| Script error: No such module "anchor".Nova laser | Shut down | 1984-1999 | 10-beam NIR and frequency-tripled 351 nm UV laser; fusion yield of 1013 neutrons; attempted ignition, but failed due to fluid instability of targets; led to construction of NIF | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:FlagiconLivermore | LLNL | ||
| Script error: No such module "anchor".ISKRA-5 | Operational | -1989 | 12-beam iodine gas laser, fusion yield 1010 to 1011 neutrons[96] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Sarov | RFNC-VNIIEF | ||
| Aurora laser | Shut down | ≤ 1988-1989 | 1990 | 96-beam Krypton fluoride laser | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| ≈Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Los Alamos | LANL | ||
| Shenguang-I | Shut down | 1990 | 2-beam Nd:glass laser, λ=Template:Val[99] | Template:Val | Template:Val[100] | Template:Country data China | Joint Laboratory of High Power Laser and Physics | |||
| PALS, formerly "Asterix IV" | Operational | -1991 | 1991- | Iodine gas laser, λ=Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Garching, Template:Flagicon Prague |
MPQ, CAS | File:Prague asterix laser system.jpeg | |
| Trident laser | Operational | 198?-1992 | 1992-2017 | 3-beam Nd:glass laser; 2 x 400 J beams, 100 ps – 1 us; 1 beam ~100 J, 600 fs – 2 ns | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Los Alamos | LANL | File:Alfoil.jpg | |
| Nike laser | Operational | ≤ 1991-1994 | 1994- | 56-beam, most-capable Krypton fluoride laser for laser target interactions[101][102] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Washington, D.C. | NRL | File:Nike laser amplifier.jpg | |
| OMEGA laser | Operational | ?-1995 | 1995- | 60-beam UV frequency-tripled Nd:glass laser, fusion yield 1014 neutrons | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Rochester | LLE | |
| Electra | Operational | Krypton fluoride laser, 5 Hz operation with 90,000+ shots continuous | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Washington D.C. | NRL | File:Electra Laser System NRL 2013.png | |||
| LULI2000 | Operational | ? | 2003- | 6-beam Nd:glass laser, λ=Template:Val, λ=Template:Val, λ=Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Palaiseau | École polytechnique | ||
| OMEGA EP | Operational | 2008- | 60-beam UV | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Rochester | LLE | |||
| Script error: No such module "anchor".National Ignition Facility (NIF) | Operational | 1997-2009 | 2010- | 192-beam Nd:glass laser, achieved scientific breakeven with fusion gain of 1.5 and Template:Val neutrons[103] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | File:NIF target chamber construction.jpg |
| Orion | Operational | 2006-2010 | 2010- | 10-beams, λ=Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon RAF Aldermaston | AWE | File:Orion target chamber.jpg | |
| Laser Mégajoule (LMJ) | Operational | 1999-2014 | 2014- | Second-largest laser fusion facility, 10 out of 22 beam lines operational in 2022[104] | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Bordeaux | CEA | [1] | |
| Laser for Fast Ignition Experiments (LFEX) | Operational | 2003-2015 | 2015- | High-contrast heating laser for FIREX, λ=Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Val | Template:Flagicon Osaka | Institute for Laser Engineering | |
| HiPER (High Power Laser Energy Research Facility) | Template:BLACK | 2007-2015 | - | Pan-European project to demonstrate the technical and economic viability of laser fusion for the production of energy[105] | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| (Template:Val) | data-sort-value="Template:Val"|(Template:Val) | data-sort-value="Template:Val"|(Template:Val) | Template:Flagicon | File:High Power Laser Energy Research Facility drawing.jpg | |
| Laser Inertial Fusion Energy (LIFE) | Template:BLACK | 2008-2013 | - | Effort to develop a fusion power plant succeeding NIF | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| (Template:Val) | data-sort-value="Template:Val"| (Template:Val) | Template:Flagicon Livermore | LLNL | File:LIFE fusion chamber.jpg | |
| ISKRA-6 | Template:Planned | ? | ? | 128 beam Nd:glass laser | Template:Val? | Template:Val? | Template:Flagicon Sarov | RFNC-VNIIEF |
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Z-pinch
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- Z Pulsed Power Facility
- ZEBRA device at the University of Nevada's Nevada Terawatt Facility[106]
- Saturn accelerator at Sandia National Laboratory[107]
- MAGPIE at Imperial College London
- COBRA at Cornell University
- PULSOTRON[108]
- Z-FFR (Z(-pinch)-Fission-Fusion Reactor), a nuclear fusion–fission hybrid machine to be built in Chengdu, China by 2025 and generate power as early as 2028
Inertial electrostatic confinement
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Magnetized target fusion
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- FRX-L
- FRCHX
- General Fusion – under development
- LINUS project
References
See also
Script error: No such module "Navbox".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Template:Cite report
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Verma, Pranshu. Nuclear fusion power inches closer to reality. The Washington Post, August 26, 2022.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".