Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

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File:Americas (orthographic projection) blank.svg
America, Western Hemisphere
File:North American cultural areas.png
Cultural regions of North American people at the time of contact
File:Early Localization Native Americans USA.jpg
Early Indigenous languages in the US

Historically, classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is based upon cultural regions, geography, and linguistics. Anthropologists have named various cultural regions, with fluid boundaries, that are generally agreed upon with some variation. These cultural regions are broadly based upon the locations of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from early European and African contact beginning in the late 15th century. When Indigenous peoples have been forcibly removed by nation-states, they retain their original geographic classification. Some groups span multiple cultural regions. Peoples can also be classified by genetics, technology, and social structure.

Canada, Greenland, United States, and northern Mexico

In the United States and Canada, ethnographers commonly classify Indigenous peoples into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits, called cultural areas.[1] Greenland is part of the Arctic region. Some scholars combine the Plateau and Great Basin regions into the Intermontane West, some separate Prairie peoples from Great Plains peoples, while some separate Great Lakes tribes from the Northeastern Woodlands.

Arctic

File:Inuktitut dialect map.svg
Inuktitut dialect map
File:Early Indian Languages Alaska.jpg
Early Indigenous languages in Alaska

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Subarctic

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Pacific Northwest coast

Template:Main article Of the Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast, it is widely agreed upon by scholars that that the area north of the Haisla represents a cultural subarea, called the "Northern" or "Northern Maritime" area. However, south of this, there is a deal of disagreement on the existence of any subareas, especially south of Vancouver Island.[4] For the purposes of organization, south of the Northern subarea, tribes are grouped by language family.

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Northern subarea

Wakashan

Nuxalk (Salishan)

Coast Salish peoples
Northern Coast Salish

Central Coast Salish

Southern Coast Salish

Southwestern Coast Salish

Chimakuan

Chinookans

Oregon Salish

Alseans

Siuslawans

Coosans

Kalapuyans

Athabaskans

Northwest Plateau

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  • Chinook peoples
  • Sahaptin people
  • Other or both

Great Plains

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Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.

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Eastern Woodlands

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Northeastern Woodlands

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Southeastern Woodlands

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Great Basin

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California

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Nota bene: The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of California's boundaries, and many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes.[58]

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Southwest

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This region is also called "Oasisamerica" and includes parts of what is now Arizona, Southern Colorado, New Mexico, Western Texas, Southern Utah, Chihuahua, and Sonora

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Mexico and Mesoamerica

The regions of Oasisamerica, Aridoamerica, and Mesoamerica span multiple countries and overlap.

Aridoamerica

File:Aridoamerica (orthographic projection).svg
Aridoamerica region of North America

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Mesoamerica

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Map of Mesoamerica

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Circum-Caribbean

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File:Áreas Culturales de América.PNG
Cultural regions of South and Central America at the time of contact (in Spanish)

Partially organized per Handbook of South American Indians.[67]

Caribbean

Anthropologist Julian Steward defined the Antilles cultural area, which includes all of the Antilles and Bahamas, except for Trinidad and Tobago.[67]

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Central America

The Central American culture area includes part of El Salvador, most of Honduras, all of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, and some peoples on or near the Pacific coasts of Colombia and Ecuador.[67]

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Colombia and Venezuela

The Colombia and Venezuela culture area includes most of Colombia and Venezuela. Southern Colombia is in the Andean culture area, as are some peoples of central and northeastern Colombia, who are surrounded by peoples of the Colombia and Venezuela culture. Eastern Venezuela is in the Guianas culture area, and southeastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela are in the Amazonia culture area.[67]

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Guianas

File:Guyanas.svg
The Guianas in northern South America
File:Neotropic-Northern-South-America.svg
The position of the Guianas in the Neotropical realm in northern South America

This region includes northern parts Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, and parts of the Amazonas, Amapá, Pará, and Roraima States in Brazil.

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Eastern Brazil

This region includes parts of the Ceará, Goiás, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pará, and Santa Catarina states of Brazil

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Andes

File:Tawantinsuyu (orthographic projection).svg
The Tawantinsuyu, or fullest extent of the Inca Empire, which includes much of the Andean cultural region

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Pacific lowlands

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Amazon

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Northwestern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas in Brazil; the Amazonas and Putumayo Departments in Colombia; Cotopaxi, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza Provinces and the Oriente Region in Ecuador; and the Loreto Region in Peru.

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Eastern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas, Maranhão, and parts of Pará States in Brazil.

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Southern Amazon

This region includes southern Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, parts of Pará, and Rondônia) and Eastern Bolivia (Beni Department).

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Southwestern Amazon

This region includes the Cuzco, Huánuco Junín, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions of eastern Peru, parts of Acre, Amazonas, and Rondônia, Brazil, and parts of the La Paz and Beni Departments of Bolivia.

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Gran Chaco

File:GranChacoApproximate.jpg
Approximate region of the Gran Chaco

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Southern Cone

File:Patagonian lang.png
Patagonian languages at the time of European/African contact

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Fjords and channels of Patagonia

Languages

Template:Main article Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian languages) are spoken by Indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These Indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According to UNESCO, most of the Indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.[76]

Writing

Before European contact:

After European contact, some distinct writing systems have been used for Indigenous languages:

Genetic classification

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The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[77] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can more easily be studied.[78] The pattern indicates Indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[79][80] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations.[79]

Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the founding population.[81][82] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[83] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Alaska Native populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous Americans with various mtDNA mutations.[84][85][86] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.[87]

Empires

Arising before European contact:

Comancheria (1770-1850) has also been described by some scholars as a Native American empire which arose after European contact.

Civilizations

These complex societies developed cities before European contact.

Technological and social periods

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The Andes, Mesoamerica, and eastern North America are considered centers that independently developed agriculture, a process known globally as the Neolithic Revolution.

The technological and social development of pre-Columbian cultures are conventionally classified into five archaeological stages:

In North America, the later stages are grouped instead into the Woodland period and Mississippian culture.

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America included for some cultures equivalents to Eurasian Copper Age and Bronze Age technology:

The Iron Age in Eurasia is defined by the production of iron tools via smelting; iron smelting was never developed natively in the Americas. Unsmelted iron was used Andeana and Mesoamerican cultures for mirrors, decorative and ceremonial items, starting fires, and small hammers. Iron magnets were apparently used by the Olmec and Chavin to align monuments. Smelted iron from shipwrecked East Asian vessels was used in the Pacific Northwest before European contact.

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ "Dena'ina." Template:Webarchive Alaska Native Language Center. Accessed December 10, 2016.
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Sturtevant and Trigger ix
  8. ↑ a b c d "Preamble." Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma Template:Webarchive. Retrieved 5 Dec 2012.
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag "Cultural Thesaurus" Template:Webarchive. National Museum of the American Indian. Accessed 8 April 2014.
  10. ↑ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Trigger 241
  11. ↑ a b c d Sturtevant and Trigger 198
  12. ↑ a b c d e Goddard 72
  13. ↑ Goddard 72 and 237
  14. ↑ a b c d e Goddard 237
  15. ↑ Goddard 72, 237–38
  16. ↑ a b c Goddard 238
  17. ↑ Goddard 72 and 238
  18. ↑ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 290
  19. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Trigger 161
  20. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293
  21. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81–82
  22. ↑ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 291
  23. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  25. ↑ Sturtevant and Trigger 255
  26. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Sturtevant and Fogelson, 69
  27. ↑ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205
  28. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214
  29. ↑ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673
  30. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix
  31. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374
  32. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sturtevant, 617
  33. ↑ Folgelson, ed. (2004), p. 315
  34. ↑ a b c d Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  35. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  36. ↑ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188
  37. ↑ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598–99
  38. ↑ a b c d e Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302
  40. ↑ Hann 1993
  41. ↑ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668
  42. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hann 1996, 5–13
  43. ↑ Milanich 1999, p. 49.
  44. ↑ Milanich 1996, p. 46.
  45. ↑ Hann 2003:11
  46. ↑ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190
  47. ↑ a b c d e f D'Azevedo, ix
  48. ↑ D'Azevedo, 161–62
  49. ↑ a b c Loether, Christopher. "Shoshones" Template:Webarchive. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Retrieved 20 Oct 2013.
  50. ↑ a b c Shimkin 335
  51. ↑ a b c d e f Murphy and Murphy 306
  52. ↑ a b c Murphy and Murphy 287
  53. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Thomas, Pendleton, and Cappannari 280–83
  54. ↑ a b c d e f g Pritzker, 230
  55. ↑ a b c d e f D'Azevedo, 339
  56. ↑ a b c d D'Azevedo, 340
  57. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  58. ↑ Pritzker 112
  59. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au Heizer ix
  60. ↑ Heizer 205–07
  61. ↑ Heizer 190
  62. ↑ Heizer 593
  63. ↑ Heizer 769
  64. ↑ Heizer 249
  65. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  66. ↑ "Paipai Language (Akwa'ala)" Template:Webarchive. Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 10 Sept 2010.
  67. ↑ a b c d Steward, Julian H. (1948) Editor. Handbook of South American Indians. Volume 4 The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.
  68. ↑ "Aboriginal Roots of Cuban Culture" Template:Webarchive. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  69. ↑ a b c d "Prehistory of the Caribbean Culture Area" Template:Webarchive. Southeast Archaeological Center. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  70. ↑ "Cacaopera" Template:Webarchive. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (retrieved 1 Dec 2011)
  71. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x "Languages of Bolivia" Template:Webarchive. Ethnologue. Retrieved 23 Oct 2012.
  72. ↑ "Apiaká: Introduction" Template:Webarchive. Instituto Socioambiental: Povos Indígenas no Brasil. Retrieved 28 March 2012
  73. ↑ "Huachipaeri" Template:Webarchive. Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 Feb 2012.
  74. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Cultural Thesaurus" Template:Webarchive. National Museum of the American Indian. (retrieved 18 Feb 2011)
  75. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  76. ↑ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. Template:ISBN. (Online version: [1].
  77. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  78. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  79. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  80. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  81. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". page 2 Template:Webarchive
  82. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  83. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  84. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  85. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  86. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  87. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".

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References

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  • D'Azevedo, Warren L., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986. Template:ISBN.
  • Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. Template:ISBN.
  • Hann, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. Template:ISBN.
  • Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513–1763. University Press of Florida. Template:ISBN.
  • Heizer, Robert F., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. Template:ISBN.
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  • Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Template:ISBN.
  • Steward, Julian H., editor. Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 4: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1948.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. Template:ISBN.

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