Iron Front

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File:Drei Pfeile.svg
The Iron Front used the Three Arrows to deface the Nazi swastika.

The Iron Front (Template:Langx) was a German "extraparliamentary"[1] and paramilitary organization in the Weimar Republic which consisted of social democrats, trade unionists, and democratic socialists. Its main goal was to defend democracy against totalitarian ideologies on the far-right and far-left. The Iron Front chiefly opposed the Sturmabteilung (SA) wing of the Nazi Party and the Script error: No such module "Lang". wing of the Communist Party of Germany.[2] Formally independent, it was intimately associated with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The Three Arrows, originally designed for the Iron Front, became a well-known social democratic symbol representing resistance against monarchism, Nazism, and communism during the parliamentary elections in November 1932. The Three Arrows were later adopted by the SPD itself.[3]

History

File:Three Arrows election poster of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, 1932 - Gegen Papen, Hitler, Thälmann.png
A widely publicized election poster of the Social Democratic Party of Germany from 1932, with Three Arrows symbol representing resistance against monarchism, Nazism and Communism, and with the slogan "Against Papen (monarchist candidate), Hitler (Nazi candidate), Thälmann (Communist candidate)."

The Iron Front was formed on 16 December 1931 in the Weimar Republic by the Social Democratic Party (SPD), along with the Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (ADGB), the Allgemeiner freier Angestelltenbund (AfA-Bund),[4] and the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold, and workers' sport clubs.[5] The Iron Front was an "extraparliamentary"[6] organisation chiefly opposed to the paramilitary organisations of both the fascist National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP), i.e. the Nazi Party, and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and established after leaders of the SPD conceded they could not abandon the streets to their enemies on the left and right.[7] Composed of socialists, trade unionists, and republicans, its initial purpose was to defend democracy and counter the right-wing Harzburg Front.[8]

Following the formation of the Iron Front, SPD politician Otto Wels clarified their priorities publicly, calling for heightened vigilance and disciplined militance; promoting social democratic unity and working class solidarity; presented workers as the defenders of the people's state; and identified the "social rights and cultural goals of the working class" with the republic and international peace. The call was not for socialism, but for a social republic, and not for revolution, but for defence of the democratic state. [9] The organization sought to engage the old Reichsbanner, the SPD youth organization, and labour and liberal groups, as a united front. About its formation, Karl Höltermann, chairman of the Reichsbanner, commented: "The year 1932 will be our year, the year of victory of the republic over its opponents. Not one day nor one hour more do we want to remain on the defensive. We attack! Attack on the whole line! We must be part of the general offensive. Today we call - tomorrow we strike!"[10]

There was a positive response to the formation of the Iron Front from reenergised rank and file SPD supporters, with thousands signing up to the "Iron Book" to show their allegiance.[11] The SPD rallied to the Iron Front, held mass demonstrations, armed themselves, and fought the Nazi SA and Communist RFB in the streets. This was more than the SPD leaders wanted, but SPD workers grew increasingly militant in their resistance against the authoritarian and totalitarian movements threatening the Weimar Republic and its democratic institutions.[12] Many of the tactics that were effectively used by the Nazis and Communists were adopted by the Iron Front as their propaganda and political communication matured, and marches were held with banners, flags and music. [13]

Its logo, the Three Arrows (pointing southwest) was designed by Russian emigre and revolutionary socialist Sergei Chakhotin, former assistant to the physiologist Ivan Pavlov in 1931.[14][15][16] Designed so as to be able to easily cover Nazi swastikas, the meaning of the three arrows has been variously interpreted. Some say they stood for unity, activity, and dicipline,[17] whilst the present-day Reichsbanner association says the arrows of the logo stood for the SPD, the trade unions, and the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold, as well as for the political, economic, and physical strength of the working class.[18] The symbol was used on a November 1932 Reichstag election poster of the SPD to represent opposition to the Nazi Party (Nazism), the Communist Party (Communism), the German National People's Party (Monarchism) as well as other reactionary groups.[19]

The Iron Front was regarded as an anti-communist and "social fascist terror organisation" by the KPD, who regarded the SPD as their main adversary.[20] In response to the formation of the Iron Front, the KPD founded its own activist wing, Antifaschistische Aktion (Antifa), which opposed the social democrat SPD and the fascist NSDAP.[21]

Opposition to the KPD and concerns around losing supporters to the communists, meant there was no unity in the fight against Hitler and the NSDAP. Even as they prepared for the worst case scenario of a Hitler chancellorship, the two groups refused to collaborate with most of the Iron Front leadership preferring a strategy of restraint, waiting for the crisis to deepen and political infighting bring the cabinet down rather than calling for mass protests and a general strike at a time where KPD support was growing and there was high worker unemployment.[22] On January 30, 1933, the day Hitler was appointed Chancellor, the KPD asked the Iron Front, the SPD, the general trade union association ADGB and their organisations, and the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold to declare a general strike against Hitler. The Iron Front declined, issued a call on February 2 to "all comrades of the Reichsbanner and the Iron Front", warning against participating in "wild actions organised by irresponsible people", and exhorted members to "turn all Iron Front events into powerful rallies for freedom".[23] Wary of any communist plots and fearful of being stabbed in the back, the Iron Front preferred to put their faith in the institutions of the State and its constitution, whilst awaiting the desired changes in the leadership of the KDP that could make collaboration between the two leftists parties possible. No direct discussions between the two groups of leaders ever took place, however,[24] as Hitler's grip on power strengthened, particularly following the Reichstag Fire of 27 February, 1933.

Hitler's appointment as Chancellor caused widespread anger among social democrats across the big cities in Germany, prompting the SPD to organise mass rallies and campaign for the March 1933 election on "radical economic slogans with stirring calls for freedom and democratic rights" despite being victims of censorship and police repression from the Nazis. [25] This repression increased markedly following the Reichstag Fire with a planned demonstration in Kassel hindered by regular police, rallies banned, and all socialist newspapers being shut down.[26] On May 2, all trade unions, with which the Iron Front was closely allied, were finally abolished, together with all trade union structures.[27] Until the mid 1930s and in some cases until the war years, some local branches of the Iron Front and the former trade union organisations continued with resistance, mostly by spreading leaflets, organizing secret meetings, and carrying out acts of sabotage.[28]

Legacy

Template:Anti-communism The Three Arrows became a symbol of the social democratic resistance against the ideologies of Nazism and Soviet-style state socialism.[3] Since roughly the 1980s, the symbol has been appropriated by American anti-fascist movements, along with flags historically derived from the German Communist Party's Antifaschistische Aktion.[29] Antifa opposed the Iron Front, whom they regarded as bourgeois and fascist, as the Three Arrows logo was used to represent resistance against Antifa's affiliated party, the KPD as well.[3] The Iron Front has also become the namesake of the American Iron Front (also known as Iron Front USA), an American political activist organization that opposes what it sees as the spread of authoritarianism and fascism in the United States.[30]

The Iron Front flag has been adopted by supporters of Major League Soccer (MLS) teams including the Portland Timbers and the Seattle Sounders frequently seen at their games. MLS banned the flag in 2019 as part of a crackdown on "political symbols," although the league repealed the ban weeks later.[31]

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Donna Harsch (1998), "The Iron Front: Weimar Social Democracy Between Tradition and Modernity, p. 251. in Barclay, D.E. and Weitz, E.D. (1998) Between reform and revolution : German socialism and communism from 1840 to 1990. New York: Berghahn Books
  5. ↑ Andreas Linhardt (2006). Die Technische Nothilfe in der Weimarer Republik. Dissertation: Braunschweig University of Technology. p. 667. Template:ISBN. Retrieved 6 August 2011 Template:In lang.
  6. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  7. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  8. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  9. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  10. ↑ Werner K. Blessing (2003). "Dok. 9 Aufruf des Bundesvorsitzenden Karl Höltermann, Anfang Januar 1932". Bayerische Landeszentrale für Politische Bildungsarbeit. Die Weimarer Republik Band III. Retrieved 6 August 2011 Template:In lang.
  11. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  14. ↑ Friedrich-Wilhelm Witt (1971). "Die Hamburger Sozialdemokratie in der Weimarer Republik". Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1929/30 – 1933 ("Hamburg Social Democracy in the Weimar Republic". With special consideration of the years 1929/30 – 1933). Hannover. p. 136.
  15. ↑ Sergei Tschachotin (1933). Dreipfeil gegen Hakenkreuz ("Three Arrows Against the Swastika"). Kopenhagen. Book was reviewed by Dieter Rebentisch (1972) in the periodical Archiv für Sozialgeschichte ("Archives for Social History"). No. 12. p. 679–???. Template:Catalog lookup linkScript error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn".Script error: No such module "check isxn"..
  16. ↑ Richard Albrecht (January 2005). "Dreipfeil gegen Hakenkreuz" – Symbolkrieg in Deutschland 1932 ("Three Arrows Against the Swastika" – symbol war in Germany 1932". Historical Case-Study in Anti-Nazi-Propaganda Within Germany and Western Europe, 1931-35).
  17. ↑ Marsch, Donna. “The Iron Front.” German Social Democracy and the Rise of Nazism, University of North Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 169–202. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861929_harsch.13. Accessed 8 June 2025.
  18. ↑ "Die Eiserne Front". Template:Webarchive Bundesverband Reichbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold, Bund Aktiver Demokraten e. V. Retrieved 6 August 2011 Template:In lang.
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Siegfried Lokatis: Der rote Faden. Kommunistische Parteigeschichte und Zensur unter Walter Ulbricht. Böhlau Verlag, Köln 2003, Template:ISBN (Zeithistorische Studien series, vol. 25), p. 60|quote=Thälmann hatte die SPD als „Hilfspolizei für den Faschismus“, als „verräterische und volksfeindliche Partei“, ihre Führer als „berufsmäßige Arbeiterverräter“, „Kapitalsknechte“ und „Todfeinde des Sozialismus“, die Eiserne Front als „Terrororganisation des Sozialfaschismus“ beschimpft und die „Liquidierung der SAJ als Massenorganisation“ gefordert. [Thälmann had insulted the SPD as "auxiliary police for fascism" and a "treacherous and anti-people party", its leaders as "professional traitors", "servants of capital", and "mortal enemies of socialism", the Iron Front as a "terrorist organization of social fascism", and declared that the "Liquidation of the SAJ as a mass organization" was required.]
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Harsch, D. and Mazal Holocaust Collection (1993) German social democracy and the rise of Nazism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 224 - 225.
  23. ↑ Hessischer Volksfreund 2.2.1933, In: VVN-BdA, Das Jahr 1933, https://dasjahr1933.de/eiserne-front-und-reichsbanner-warnen-vor-wilden-aktionen-2-februar-1933/
  24. ↑ Harsch, D. and Mazal Holocaust Collection (1993) German social democracy and the rise of Nazism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 224 - 227.
  25. ↑ Harsch, D. and Mazal Holocaust Collection (1993) German social democracy and the rise of Nazism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 224 - 227.
  26. ↑ Harsch, D. and Mazal Holocaust Collection (1993) German social democracy and the rise of Nazism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 229.
  27. ↑ VVN-BdA, Das Jahr 1933/
  28. ↑ Heinz, Stefan, Interview with Gerda Henkel Stiftung, 15 December 2015
  29. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".

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Further reading

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