Eskaleut languages

The Eskaleut (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of what are now the United States (Alaska); Canada (Inuit Nunangat) including Nunavut, Northwest Territories (principally in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region), northern Quebec (Nunavik), and northern Labrador (Nunatsiavut); Greenland; and the Russian Far East (Chukchi Peninsula). The language family is also known as Eskaleutian, or Eskaleutic.

The Eskaleut language family is divided into two branches: Eskimoan and Aleut. The Aleut branch consists of a single language, Aleut, spoken in the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands. Aleut is divided into several dialects. The Eskimoan languages are divided into two branches: the Yupik languages, spoken in western and southwestern Alaska and in Chukotka, and the Inuit languages, spoken in northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland. Inuit languages are divided into several varieties. Neighbouring varieties are quite similar, although those at the farthest distances from the centre in the Diomede Islands and East Greenland are quite divergent.

The proper place of one language, Sirenik, within the Eskimoan family has not been settled. While some linguists list it as a branch of Yupik, others list it as a separate branch of the Eskimoan family, alongside the Yupik and Inuit languages.

History

The Eskaleut languages are among the native languages of the Americas. They are not demonstrably related to the other language families of North America and are believed to represent a separate, and the last, prehistoric migration of people from Asia. The Alaska Native Language Center believes that the ancestral Eskaleut language divided into the Eskimoan and Aleut branches at least 4,000 years ago. The Eskimoan language family split into the Yupik and Inuit branches around 1,000 years ago. More recent classifications find a third branch, Old Sirenik.

Alexander Vovin (2015) notes that northern Tungusic languages, which are spoken in eastern Siberia and northeastern China, have Eskaleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskaleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskaleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River. Vovin (2015) concludes that the homeland (Urheimat) of Proto-Eskaleut was in Siberia rather than in Alaska.

Internal classification

• Eskaleut
  • Aleut (Unangam Tunuu) (40–80 speakers)
    • Western–Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan Template:Extinct (1997), Bering Template:Extinct (2021), Unangan
    • Eastern dialects: Unalaskan, Pribilof
  • Eskimoan
    • Sirenik (Uqeghllistun) Template:Extinct (1997)
    • Yupik or Western Eskimoan
      • Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yupik (ca. 80 speakers)
        • Koniag Alutiiq (Alutiit’stun)
        • Chugach Alutiiq (Sugt’stun)
      • Central Alaskan Yup'ik (5,000 speakers ±50%)
        • General Central Alaskan Yup'ik (Yugtun)
        • Chevak Cupꞌik (Cugtun)
        • Nunivak Cupʼig (Cugtun) (5–25 speakers)
      • Naukan (Nuvuqaghmiistun) (70 speakers)
      • Central Siberian Yupik (Yuit/Yupigestun) ("Yuit" in Russia, "Yupigestun" in Alaska; Chaplino and St. Lawrence Island)
        • Chaplino (Chaplinski) Yupik (Ungazighmiistun) (ca. 200 speakers)
        • St. Lawrence Island Yupik (Sivuqaghmiistun) (400–750 speakers)
    • Inuit or Eastern Eskimoan (ca. 100,000 speakers)
      • Iñupiaq or Inupiat (northern Alaska, 5,000 speakers ±50%)
        • Qawiaraq or Seward Peninsula Inupiaq
        • Inupiatun/Iñupiatun or Northern Alaska Inupiaq (including Uummarmiutun (Aklavik, Inuvik))
      • Inuvialuktun (western Canada; 1,020 speakers, 2016 census)
        • Siglitun (Paulatuk, Sachs Harbour, Tuktoyaktuk)
        • Inuinnaqtun (in Ulukhaktok also known as Kangiryuarmiutun)
        • Natsilingmiutut (Netsilik area, Nunavut)
      • Inuktitut (eastern Canada; 36,000 speakers, 2016 census)
        • Inuttitut or Nunatsiavummiutut (Nunatsiavut, 550 speakers)
        • Nunavimmiutitut (Nunavik)
        • Qikiqtaaluk nigiani (South Baffin)
        • Qikiqtaaluk uannangani or Iglulingmiut (North Baffin)
        • Aivilingmiutut (east-central Nunavut)
        • Kivallirmiutut (Southeast Nunavut)
        • Inuktun or Avanersuaq (Polar Eskimo, Greenland, 800 speakers)
      • Greenlandic (Greenland: 50,000 speakers Greenland, 7,000 Denmark)
        • Kalaallisut (West Greenlandic, 44,000 speakers)
        • Tunumiisut (East Greenlandic, 3,000 speakers)

Position among the world's language families

Eskaleut does not have any genetic relationship to any of the world's other language families, this being generally accepted by linguists at the present time. There is general agreement that it is not closely related to the other language families of North America. The more credible proposals on the external relations of Eskaleut all concern one or more of the language families of northern Eurasia, such as Chukotko-Kamchatkan just across the Bering Strait. One of the first such proposals, the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis, was suggested by the pioneering Danish linguist Rasmus Rask in 1818, upon noticing similarities between Greenlandic and Finnish. Perhaps the most fully developed proposal to date is Michael Fortescue's Uralo–Siberian hypothesis, published in 1998 which links Eskaleut languages to Yukaghir and the Uralic languages.

More recently Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) suggested grouping Eskaleut with all of the language families of northern Eurasia (Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Korean, Japanese, Ainu, Nivkh/Gilayak, and Chukchi–Kamchatkan), with the exception of Yeniseian, in a proposed language family called Eurasiatic. Such proposals are not generally accepted. Criticisms have been made stating that Greenberg's hypothesis is ahistorical, meaning that it lacks and sacrifices known historical elements of language in favour of external similarities. Although the Eurasiatic hypothesis is generally disregarded by linguists, one critique by Stefan Georg and Alexander Vovin stated that they were not willing to disregard the theory immediately although ultimately agreed that Greenberg's conclusion was dubious. Greenberg explicitly states that his developments were based on the previous macro-comparative work done by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Bomhard and Kerns. By providing evidence of lexical comparison, Greenberg hoped that it would strengthen his hypothesis.

Despite all these efforts, the Eurasiatic language theory was overruled on the basis that mass comparison is not accurate enough an approach. In comparative linguistics, the comparative method bases its validity on highly regular changes, not occasional semantic and phonological similarities, which is what the Eurasiatic hypothesis provides.

In the 1960s Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with the Wakashan languages. This was expanded by Jan Henrik Holst (2005).

Notable features

Every word must have only one root (free morpheme) always at the beginning. Eskaleut languages have a relatively small number of roots: in the case of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, around two thousand. Following the root are a number of postbases, which are bound morphemes that add to the basic meaning of the root. If the meaning of the postbase is to be expressed alone, a special neutral root (in the case of Central Alaskan Yup'ik and Inuktitut pi) is used.

The basic word schema is as follows: root-(affixes)-inflection-(enclitic). Below is an example from Central Siberian Yupik.

There are a total of three affixes internal to the word . The root (or free morpheme) and the inflection on the right consist of the indicative mood marker plus third person singular. The enclitic ‘also’ follows the inflection.

Following the postbases are non-lexical suffixes that indicate case on nouns and person and mood on verbs. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to Eskimoan. The Eskimoan languages are ergative–absolutive in nouns and in Yup'ik languages, also in verbal person marking. All Eskaleut languages have obligatory verbal agreement with agent and patient in transitive clauses, and there are special suffixes used for this purpose in subordinate clauses, which makes these languages, like most in the North Pacific, highly complement deranking.

At the end of a word there can be one of a small number of clitics with meanings such as "but" or indicating a polar question.

Phonologically, the Eskaleut languages resemble other language families of northern North America (Na-Dene and Tsimshianic) and far-eastern Siberia (Chukotko-Kamchatkan). There are usually only three vowels—, , —though some Yup'ik dialects also have Template:IPAslink. All Eskaleut languages lack both ejectives and aspirates, in which they resemble the Siberian languages more than the North American ones. Eskaleut languages possess voiceless plosives at four positions (bilabial, coronal, velar and uvular) in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops (though it has retained the nasal). There are usually contrasting voiced and voiceless fricatives at the same positions, and in the Eskimoan subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present. A rare feature of many dialects of Yup'ik and Aleut is contrasting voiceless nasals.

Phonology

Eskimoan

The following vowels and consonants were taken from Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.

Vowels

Eskimoan Template:IPAslink corresponds to Aleut Template:IPAslink.

	Front	Central	Back
Close	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Mid		Template:IPA link
Open		Template:IPA link

Consonants

Inuit allows only a single initial consonant and no more than two successive consonants between vowels.

Yupik exhibits no consonant assimilation process so common to Inuit.

Consonants in parentheses are non-Proto-Eskimoan phonemes.

		Labial	Alveolar			Velar	Uvular	Glottal
			Plain	Palatalized	Lateral
Nasal		Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)[1]		Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)
Plosive		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Affricate			Template:IPA link[2]
Fricative	Voiceless	(Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)		Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)	(Template:IPA link)
	Voiced	Template:IPA link (Template:IPA link)	Template:IPA link	(Template:IPA link) (Template:IPA link)		Template:IPA link	Template:IPA link
Trill			[3]				(Template:IPA link)
Approximant				Template:IPA link[4]	Template:IPA link

Aleut

The following vowels and consonants were taken from Knut Bergsland, (1997).

Vowels

The Aleut language has six vowels in total: three short vowels , , , and three long vowels , , . Orthographically, they would be spelled ii, uu, and aa. There are no diphthongs in Aleut vowels. The length of the vowel is dependent upon three characteristics: stress, surrounding consonants, and in particularly Eastern Aleut, surrounding vowels. Short vowels are in initial position if a following consonant is velar or labial. For example: the demonstratives , , and .

Long vowels are lower than their short counterpart vowels, but are less retracted if they make contact with a uvular consonant. For example: Template:Gloss, Template:Gloss, and 'eat it!'

	Front	Central	Back
Close	Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link		Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link
Open		Template:IPA link   Template:IPA link

Consonants

The Aleut consonants featured below include single Roman letters, digraphs, and one trigraph. Phonemes in parentheses are found only in Russian and English loanwords, the phoneme in italics is found only in Eastern Aleut, and the bold phonemes are a part of the standard Aleut inventory.

Aleut has no native labial stops and allows clusters of up to three consonants as well as consonant clusters in word initial position.

Cross-linguistically rare phonological features include voiceless nasals and absence of a .

	Labial		Dental		Alveolar	Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Glottal
Plosive	Template:IPAslink (p)	Template:IPAslink (b)	Template:IPAslink t	Template:IPAslink (d)	Template:IPAslink tʳ*	Template:IPAslink tj		Template:IPAslink k	Template:IPAslink (g)	Template:IPAslink q
Fricative	Template:IPAslink (f)	Template:IPAslink v*	Template:IPAslink hd	Template:IPAslink d		Template:IPAslink s	Template:IPAslink z	Template:IPAslink x	Template:IPAslink g	Template:IPAslink x̂	Template:IPAslink ĝ
Nasal	Template:IPAslink hm	Template:IPAslink m	Template:IPAslink hn	Template:IPAslink n				Template:IPAslink hŋ	Template:IPAslink ŋ
Lateral			Template:IPAslink hl	Template:IPAslink l
Approximant	Template:IPAslink hw	Template:IPAslink w			Template:IPAslink, Template:IPAslink (r)	Template:IPAslink hy	Template:IPAslink y					Template:IPAslink h

Morphology

Language type

Polysynthetic language

Eskaleut is polysynthetic, which features a process in which a single word is able to contain multiple post-bases or morphemes. The Eskaleut languages are exclusively suffixing (with the exception of one prefix in Inuktitut that appears in demonstratives). Suffixes are able to combine and ultimately create an unlimited number of words. Some of the morphemes that are able to attach contain features such as carrying nominal subjects and objects, adverbial information, direct objects, and spatial noun phrases. Polysynthetic languages are said to be a form of extreme agglutination, which allows single words to carry the same information that another language expresses in whole clauses. For example, in Central Alaskan Yupik, one can say:

As a polysynthetic language, Eskaleut is concerned with what "each morpheme means, which categories it can attach to, whether there is any category change, etc. and what type of morphophonological effect occurs to the left as it attaches to the stem".

Morphosyntactic alignment

Eskimoan languages are ergative–absolutive. This means subjects of intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs are marked with the absolutive case, while subjects of transitive verbs are marked with the ergative case.

Aleut is not an ergative–absolutive language. It does not matter if the verb is transitive or intransitive—subjects and objects are not marked differently.

If a transitive object or an object of possession is openly communicated, ergative case marking will not be expressed. If a transitive object or object of possession is not openly communicated, then ergative case marking will be expressed.

Example of case marking in Aleut:

Syntax

Eskaleut languages follow the basic word order of subject–object–verb (SOV).

The syntax of Eskaleut is concerned with the functional use of its morphological structure. The two language branches, although part of the same family, have separated and detached themselves in relation to grammatical similarities. Bergsland states that Aleut, which was once a language more similar to Proto-Eskimoan than the current Eskimoan languages themselves, has distanced itself from the ancient language.

The case inflections, "relative *-m, instrumental *-mEk/meN, and locative *-mi have undergone phonological merger and led to a completely different explanation of ergative morphology in Proto-Eskimoan.

In order to further explain the profound changes that have occurred in Aleutian syntax, Bergsland proposed the Domino Effect, which is ultimately the chronological order of Aleut’s unique features. Below is a step by step list of the 'domino effect':

The Domino Effect:

1. The phonological reduction of final syllables and the ensuing syncretism of locative, relative, and instrumental case markers;
2. The collapse of the ergative system and of the distinction between relative and locative case in postpositional constructions;
3. The development of the unusual Aleut anaphoric reference system from the debris of this collapse, going hand in hand with a strict fixation of SOV word order;
4. The simple 3rd person forms when the original morphemes began to refer to any anaphoric (non-overt) referent, and;
5. The spread of such a referent's own number (including that of a possessor of some overt argument) to the final verb of the (complex) sentence, overriding agreement with the subject.

Vocabulary comparison

The following is a comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Eskaleut language family (about 122 words). Note that empty cells do not imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language is formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

Cognates of the Eskimoan languages can be found in Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.

Cognates of the Aleut language can be found in Knut Bergsland, 1997.

Persons

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
boy			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
daughter			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
family, relative			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
girl			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
(grand)father			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
human being (shaman word's)Template:Clarify			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
husband			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
man			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
mother			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
mother-in-law			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
older brother (of female)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
older sister (of male)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
person			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
son			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
wife			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
woman			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
young brother (of female)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
young sister (of male)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Pronouns

There are two types of pronouns: independent pronouns and pronominal pronouns.

Pronouns in relation to nouns

In Eskaleut languages, singular, dual, and plural nouns are marked by inflectional suffixes, and if they are possessed, the number marker is followed by pronominal suffixes that specify the (human) possessor. There are no genders, and this can be seen in the four persons: my, your, his/her, his/her own.

"His/her own" specifies ownership, in contrast with "his/her", which does not. E.g., his house vs. his own house. (See Possessive determiner § Semantics.)

Pronouns in relation to verbs

Aleut uses independent pronouns, instead of pronominal marking on verbs. On the other hand, Eskimoan languages have four persons and three numbers marked by pronominal suffixes.

Independent pronouns

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
first-person singular (I)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
second-person singular (you)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
third-person singular (he, she, it)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
first-person dual (we both)												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
second-person dual (you both)												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
first-person plural (we)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
second-person dual reflexive (both ... yourselves)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
third-person dual reflexive (both ... themselves)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Pronominal suffixes

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
first-person singular (I)			Template:Translit			,					,	Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit				,	,
second-person singular (you)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
third-person singular (he, she, it)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit				,	,
first-person singular possessive (my)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
second-person singular possessive (your)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
third-person singular possessive (his, her, its)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
third-person singular object (him, her, it)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Interrogative words

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
who			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
what			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
when (past/future)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
where			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
why			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Body parts

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
anus			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
arm			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
belly			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
blood			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
calf			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
ear			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit					/
eye			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
eyelash			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
finger			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
fingernail												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
foot			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
hair			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
hand			Template:Translit									Template:Translit Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
head			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
heart			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
knee			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
navel			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
nose			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Animals

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
bowhead whale, whale			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
Canada goose			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
caribou			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
dog			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
fish			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
groundhog, Arctic squirrel			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
killer whale			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
louse			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
oldsquaw/long-tailed duck			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
ptarmigan			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
swan			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Other nouns

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
and, also			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
arrow			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
ash			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
atmosphere, weather, out			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
breath			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
cloud												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
cook			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
cry, weep			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
dog barking			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
earth												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
feather			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
fire			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
Here it is!			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
hilltop			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
house			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
hungry			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
kiss, kiss on nose			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
lake			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
load			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
milk		,	Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
name			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
no			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
price, value			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
shaman			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
ship, boat			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
sky			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
smoke			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
snow(flake)			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
star												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
sun, day			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
tell a story/legend			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
tent			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
to ask			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
to urinate			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
tree, wood			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
water			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
wind			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
yes			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Adjectives

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
Cold!/Brrr!/How cold!												Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
copper			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
fat			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
grey hair			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
long			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
still, also, more			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
swell			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
white			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

Template:Vanchor

Common meaning	Aleut	Proto-Eskimoan	Sirenik	Siberian Yupik	Alutiiq	Yup'ik	Seward Inupiaq	Qawiaraq	Malimiutun	North Slope	Uummarmiutun	Siglitun	Inuinnaqtun	Natsilik	Kivalliq	Aivilik	North Baffin	South Baffin	Nunavik	Labrador Inuttut	North Greenlandic	West Greenlandic	East Greenlandic
one			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
two			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
three			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
four			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
five			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
six			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit
ten			Template:Translit									Template:Translit		Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit	Template:Translit

See also

• Eskimo-Uralic
• Eskimology
• Proto-Eskaleut language
• Proto-Eskimoan language
• Uralo-Siberian

External links

• Alaska Native Language Center