ʿApiru

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Template:Short description

Cuneiform SA.KAS and KU6.KAŠ.RU
Cuneiform of Sumerian <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz and corresponding West Semitic ha-bi-ru

Template:Contains special characters

ʿApiru (Template:Langx, Template:Langx), also known in the Akkadian version Ḫabiru (sometimes written Habiru, Ḫapiru or Hapiru; Akkadian: 𒄩𒁉𒊒, ḫa-bi-ru or *ʿaperu) is a term used in 2nd-millennium BCE texts throughout the Fertile Crescent for a social status of people who were variously described as rebels, outlaws, raiders, mercenaries, bowmen, servants, slaves, and laborers.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn[1]

Due to the linguistic similarity between the term 'Apiru and "Hebrew," early scholars equated them with the Israelites. However, most contemporary scholars now regard the connection as indirect, suggesting that while some early Israelites may have originated from this group, they likely adopted the linguistic label in the process.[2][3]Template:Sfn

Etymology

Template:Trim
ꜥpr.w[4]
in hieroglyphs
Template:Hiero/era | Era: Template:Hiero/era

The term was first discovered in its Akkadian version "ḫa-bi-ru" or "ḫa-pi-ru". Due to later findings in Ugaritic and Egyptian which used the consonants ʿ, p and r, and in light of the well-established sound change from Northwest Semitic ʿ to Akkadian ḫ,[5] the root of this term is proven to be ʿ-p-r.[6][7][1][8][9] This root means "dust, dirt", and links to the characterization of the ʿApiru as nomads, mercenaries, people who are not part of the cultural society.[1][8] The morphological pattern of the word is qatilu,[7] which point to a status, condition.[1]

The Sumerogram <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz

The Akkadian term Ḫabiru occasionally alternates with the Sumerograms <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz. Akkadian dictionaries for Sumerograms added to <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz the gloss ḫabatu "raider", which raised the suggestion to read the Sumerograms as this word. However, the Amarna letters attested the spelling <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa ga.az, and letters from Ugarit attested the spelling <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz, which points that these Sumerograms were read as written and did not function as ideograms. The only Akkadian word that fits such spelling is "šagašu" (barbarian), but an Akkadian gloss to an Akkadian word seems odd, and the meaning of šagašu doesn't fit the essence of the Ḫabiru. Therefore, the meaning of <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz should probably be found in a West Semitic word such as Aramaic <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>šgš, which means "muddy, restless",[10] while the word ḫabatu should be interpreted as "nomad", which fits the meaning of the word Ḫabiru/ʿApiru.[11]

Hapiru, Habiru, and ʿApiru

In the time of Rim-Sin I (1822 BCE to 1763 BCE), the Sumerians knew a group of Aramaean nomads living in southern Mesopotamia as <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz, which meant "trespassers".[12] The later Akkadians inherited the term, which was rendered as the calque Ḫabiru, properly ʿApiru. The term occurs in hundreds of 2nd millennium BCE documents covering a 600-year period from the 18th to the 12th centuries BCE and found at sites ranging from Egypt, Canaan and Syria, to Nuzi (Upper Mesopotamia near Kirkuk, northern Iraq) and Anatolia (now Turkey).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

File:Idrimi of Alalakh.jpg
Idrimi of Alalakh

Not all Habiru were brigands:Template:Sfn in the 18th century BCE, a north Syrian king named Irkabtum (c. 1740 BCE) "made peace with [the warlord] Shemuba and his Habiru,"Template:Sfn while the ʿApiru, Idrimi of Alalakh, was the son of a deposed king, and formed a band of ʿApiru to make himself king of Alalakh.Template:Sfn What Idrimi shared with the other ʿApiru was membership of an inferior social class of outlaws, mercenaries, and slaves leading a marginal and sometimes lawless existence on the fringes of settled society.Template:Sfn ʿApiru had no common ethnic affiliations and no common language, their names being most frequently West Semitic, but also East Semitic, Hurrian or Indo-European.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

File:AreasOfHabiruActivityInAmarnaLettersLBIIA.svg
Areas of reported Habiru activity during the Late Bronze IIA period (based on the Amarna letters corpus)
Template:Trim
The spelling of singular ꜥApiru in

"The Conquest of Joppa" tale[13]
in hieroglyphs

Template:Hiero/era | Era: Template:Hiero/era

In the Amarna letters from the 14th century BCE, the petty kings of Canaan describe them sometimes as outlaws, sometimes as mercenaries, and sometimes as day labourers and servants.Template:Sfn Usually they are socially marginal, but Rib-Hadda of Byblos refers to Abdi-Ashirta of Amurru (modern Lebanon) and his son Aziru as ʿApiru, with the implication that they have rebelled against their common overlord, the pharaoh.Template:Sfn[14] In The Taking of Joppa (now Jaffa), an Egyptian work of historical fiction from around 1440 BCE, they appear as brigands, and General Djehuty asks at one point that his horses be taken inside the city lest a passing ʿApir steal them.Template:Sfn

Habiru and the biblical Hebrews

Since the discovery of the 2nd millennium BCE inscriptions mentioning the Habiru, there have been many theories linking these to the Hebrews of the Bible.[12] Most of these theories were based on the supposed etymological link and were widely denied based on the Egyptian sources and later following the Ugaritic and Hittite discoveries.[1][8][9] There are two main barriers, linguistic and group identity.

Some scholars, Anson Rainey and R. Steven Notley among them, deny any linguistic relationship between Ḫabiru and Hebrew,[15][16] or at most admit only "a bare possibility".[17] But this view remains short of academic consensus. Philologically, argued Moshe Greenberg, Apiru and Hebrew though not transparently related are not irreconcilable.[18][19] Nadav Na’aman had no doubt that the term "Hebrew" was derived from "Habiru".[20] The Christian priestly scholars, such as Manfred Weippert, Henri Cazelles and Oswald Loretz, are the least ready to give up the relation between Apiru and Hebrew. For them the linguistic equation between Apiru and Hebrew is easy and comfortable.[21][22]Script error: No such module "Unsubst".[23] Loretz, however, admits the etymological possibility despite denying all equations between Apiru and Hebrew.[24]

Regarding the identity, the academic consensus is well established that Apiru and Hebrews represent two different groups. The Biblical Hebrews are an ethnic group while Apiru were a much wider multi-ethnic group distinguished by social status. The morphological pattern of the word ʿApiru is, as mentioned above, qatilu, which point a status, as opposed to the morphological pattern of the ethnonym עִבְרִי (Hebrew) which is based on nisba (like מִצְרִי – Egyptian).[1] Moreover, Meredith Kline finds that Apiru were not even Semitic peoples.[25]

The matter was complicated when, in the light of the research on the Apiru, scholars examined the context of Hebrews in the Bible. The new analysis indicated a group broader than the Israelites and more associated with the Apiru, best seen in 1 Samuel 13, 14.[26] Na’aman and Yoel Bin-Nun point out that "Hebrew" is typically used to describe "Israelites in exceptional circumstances", in particular, wandering, oppressed or enslaved Israelites struggling for liberation.[27] Na’aman finds that all biblical references to the "Hebrews" reflect some traits borrowed from the image of the second millennium Apiru.[28] Greenberg confirms that Hebrew is an archaic term predating Israelites.[29] Professor Albert D. Friedberg concurs, arguing that Apiru refers to a social class found in every ancient Near Eastern society but in the texts that describe the early periods of the Patriarchs and the Exodus term Hebrew refers to a broad group of people in the Levant (like the Apiru), among whom the Israelites were a part.[30]

Joseph Blenkinsopp makes one exception: Except for its first appearance (Genesis 14:13), the biblical word "Hebrew" can be interpreted as a social category.Template:Sfn For some scholars, however, the passage is confirmation rather than exception. Here Abram appears as a leader of host in a military alliance. He pursues and smites his enemy. The passage presents a warrior Abram, with a rather different character from that of other episodes in Genesis, in which Abram is never a warrior.[31][32] This associates with the Apiru too. In the earliest Mesopotamian texts mentioning the Apiru they appear as military contingents, auxiliaries, or bands of raiders.[33] Babylonian and Mari tablets mention them particularly as military auxiliaries. Elsewhere in the Fertile Crescent they are also often depicted as auxiliary warriors.[34] In the Amarna letters, Apiru are most prominent in military activity. Some hypotheses on Genesis 14 suggested a foreign, perhaps Babylonian, document at the core, or a memory of time when Abram belonged to Apiru before the term Hebrew obtained an ethnic meaning.[35] Elsewhere in the Bible, the Israelites are called Hebrews when enslaved or oppressed and struggling for liberation.[36]

The military context associates with one of the interpretations suggested for Apiru. In the Sumerogram <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz, <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa could mean "muscle" and <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>gaz "to strike" or "kill".[37][38] The meaning "murderer" or "killer" was suggested for the combination <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz,[37][39] or literally "muscle killer". <templatestyles src="smallcaps/styles.css"/>sa.gaz was supposed to be a transliteration of the Akkadian pseudo-ideogram šaggāšum or "murderer".[40] The Epic of Gilgamesh (1:4:7) uses šaggāšum for Enkidu, describing him as a military leader and nomad native of the wild steppe.[37] In the Old Babylonian tradition, Šaggāšu is a ghost-murderer of the steppe.[41]

Research defined "dust" or "dirt" as the most probable meaning of Apiru. The wandering Apiru, Rainey suggested, had to "hit the road", thus they were covered with dust and were called dusty.Template:Sfn But this is a hypothetical suggestion not found in primary sources.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

The consensus remains that Apiru and Hebrews were not identical groups, but scholars became divided whether the two groups were related. Some scholars, such as Rainey, remained unmoved and deny any relation. Rainey stated that those relating Apiru and Hebrews were mistaken and all attempts to relate the two are wishful thinking.Template:Sfn He notes that while ʿApiru covered the regions from Nuzi to Anatolia as well as northern Syria, Canaan and Egypt, they were distinguished from Shutu (Sutu) or Shasu (Shosu), Syrian pastoral nomads named in the Amarna letters and likely more closely associated with the Hebrews.Template:Sfn Kline suggests that Apiru, besides being non-Semitic, were foes of Israel and their first oppressors in Canaan.[42]

Other scholars, by contrast, allowed the possibility of relation.[43] As pointed out by Moore and Kelle, while the ʿApiru/Ḫabiru appear to be composed of many different peoples, including nomadic Shasu and Shutu, the biblical Midianites, Kenites, and Amalekites, as well as displaced peasants and pastoralists, they also may be related to the biblical Hebrews.Template:Sfn A hypothesis emerged that Hebrews were one offshoot of Apiru, a larger whole from which the Hebrews originated.[44][45] It has become a commonplace assumption that all Israelites were Hebrews but not all Hebrews were Israelites.[45][46][47]

S. Douglas Waterhouse said that the political situation during Joshua's conquests was similar to the political situation in Canaan during the Amarna period, with the largest exception being that the role of the Egyptians in Canaan during the Amarna period was not mentioned in the Bible.[48] Kline stated that the Ḫabiru of the Amarna period and the biblical Hebrews had a different relationship with the Canaanites, different goals and used different tactics.[49]

The ethnic connotation of the term Hebrew synonymous with the people of Israel were attributed to the later Jewish tradition.[50] "It could well be", writes Stuart A. West, "that the word Hebrew was originally only a sociological designation, indicating status or class - in which case the words Hebrew and Habiru are synonymous. The fact that in the later Books of the Bible and in its usage in post-biblical times, the word Hebrew has been used as an ethnic designation simply means that the original meaning of the word has been changed."[45] Loretz assigns all mentions of Hebrews in the Bible to the post-exilic period, centuries after Apiru disappeared from the sources.[51]

Greenberg concluded his research: The ʿApiru were ethnically diverse but this term can be related to the term "Hebrew" both in etymology[52][53] and meaning. The ethnic and social spheres may have met in Abraham the Hebrew, who may at once have been an Apiru as well as the ancestor of the Israelites. "Hebrew" will then be a peculiarly Biblical adaptation of the social term. A considerable possibility remains that the beginnings of the Israelite history are bound with the wandering Apiru.[54] The Bible might have preserved a vague memory that the Patriarchs had once been Apiru.[47][55][56][57]

See also

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References

Citations

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  1. ↑ a b c d e f Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  4. ↑ Other versions: <hiero>a:p:r-A1-Z3</hiero> <hiero>a:p*W-y:r-Z1-T14-A1-Z3</hiero> See: Ernest Alfred Wallis, An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary, John Murray, 1920, p. 119
  5. ↑ Cf. Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  6. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  7. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Rainey, Anson & Notley, R. Steven (208). The Sacred Bridge (Jerusalem: Carta, 2006), p. 89.
  16. ↑ Rainey, Anson (2008). Biblical Archaeological Review, vol 34 (6), 53-54, "Who were the early Israelites?"
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1964). "Hab/piru and Hebrews," World History of the Jewish People, (ed. Mazar, Benjamin, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press), vol 2, p 197.
  19. ↑ Also יואל בן-נון (2012). "העברים וארץ- העברים," (מכללת הרצוג: הוצאות תבונות), עמוד 18, https://www.herzog.ac.il/vtc/tvunot/mega15_ybn.pdf
  20. ↑ Na’aman, Nadav (1986). “Habiru and Hebrews, The transfer of a social term to the literary sphere,” JNES, vol 45 (4): p 278.
  21. ↑ Weippert, Manfred (1967). Die Landnahme der israelitischen Stämme in der neueren wissenschaftlichen Diskussion. Ein kritischer Bericht. (Go ttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht)., p 66-102.
  22. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  23. ↑ Cazelles, Henri (1973). "The Hebrews," Peoples of the Old Testament Times, (Oxford: Clarendon Press), p 4-5.
  24. ↑ Loretz, Oswald (1984). Habiru-Hebräer: Eine sozio-linguistische Studie über die Herkunft des Gentiliziums cibrí vom Appellativum habiru, (Berlin: De Gruyter), chapters 8 and 10.
  25. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  26. ↑ Kline, Meredith G. (1958). "The Habiru - kin or foe of Israel," Westminster Theological Journal, 20, part III: p 49-50.
  27. ↑ יואל בן-נון (2012). "העברים וארץ- העברים," (מכללת הרצוג: הוצאות תבונות), עמוד 17, https://www.herzog.ac.il/vtc/tvunot/mega15_ybn.pdf
  28. ↑ Nadav Na’aman, “Habiru and Hebrews, the transfer of a social term to the literary sphere,” JNES, 45 (1986): p 278.
  29. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1964). "Hab/piru and Hebrews," World History of the Jewish People, (ed. Mazar, Benjamin, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press), vol 2, p 198.
  30. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  31. ↑ Cazelles, H. (1973). "The Hebrews," Peoples of the Old Testament Times, (Oxford: Clarenderon Press), p 22.
  32. ↑ Kline, Meredith G. (1958). "The Habiru - kin or foe of Israel," Westminster Theological Journal, 20, part III: p 51.
  33. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1964). "Hab/piru and Hebrews," World History of the Jewish People, (ed. Mazar, Benjamin, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press), vol 2, p 189, 199-200.
  34. ↑ West, Stuart A. (1979). The World Jewish Bible Society, vol 7, (3), p 103-104, "The Habiru and the Hebrews"
  35. ↑ אנציקלופדיה מקראית, "חברו," עמוד 51.
  36. ↑ Yoel Bin-Nun (2012). "העברים וארץ- העברים," (מכללת הרצוג: הוצאות תבונות), עמוד 17, https://www.herzog.ac.il/vtc/tvunot/mega15_ybn.pdf
  37. ↑ a b c Kline, Meredith G. (1958). "The Habiru - kin or foe of Israel," Westminster Theological Journal, 20, part I, p 6-7.
  38. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  39. ↑ In Hebrew, "Habiru," Biblical Encyclopedia, p 13.
  40. ↑ Anchor Bible, "Habiru" vol III, p 7.
  41. ↑ Fincke, Jeanette C. (2013). "Šaggāšu ('Murderer'), the demon from the steppe," Bibliotheca Orientalis, vol 70 (1-2), 17-24.
  42. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  43. ↑ Cazelles, Henri (1973). "The Hebrews," Peoples of the Old Testament Times, (Oxford: Clarenderon Press), p 23.
  44. ↑ Kline, Meredith G. (1958). "The Habiru - kin or foe of Israel," Westminster Theological Journal, 20, part III, p 46.
  45. ↑ a b c West, Stuart A. (1979). The World Jewish Bible Society, vol 7, (3), p 106, "The Habiru and the Hebrews"
  46. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1955). American Oriental Society, vol 39, (New Haven: Connecticut), p 92, "The Hab/piru"
  47. ↑ a b Waterhouse, S. Douglas (2001). Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, vol 12 (1): p 42, "Who are the Ḫabiru of the Amarna Letters?"
  48. ↑ Waterhouse, S. Douglas (2001). Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, vol 12 (1): p 35-40, "Who are the Ḫabiru of the Amarna Letters?"
  49. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  50. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1955). American Oriental Society, vol 39, (New Haven: Connecticut), p 11, 90-93, "The Hab/piru"
  51. ↑ Loretz, Oswald (1984). Habiru-Hebräer: Eine sozio-linguistische Studie über die Herkunft des Gentiliziums cibrí vom Appellativum habiru, (Berlin: De Gruyter), p 50-51.
  52. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1955). American Oriental Society, vol 39, (New Haven: Connecticut), p 11, 90-92, "The Hab/piru"
  53. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1964). "Hab/piru and Hebrews," World History of the Jewish People, (ed. Mazar, Benjamin, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press), vol 2, p 197
  54. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1955). American Oriental Society, vol 39, (New Haven: Connecticut), p 96, "The Hab/piru"
  55. ↑ Greenberg, Moshe (1964). "Hab/piru and Hebrews," World History of the Jewish People, (ed. Mazar, Benjamin, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press), vol 2: p 199-200.
  56. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  57. ↑ Weippert, Manfred (1971). "The settlement of the Israelite tribes in Palestine." Studies in Biblical Theology, second series 21 (Naperville, IL: Alec R. Allenson), 74-82.

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Bibliography

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  • ABDELHAFEZ, Ahmed (2024), Aperu in Ancient Egyptian Texts, Journal of Faculty of Archaeology- Cairo University, Vol. 15, Issue 27, p. 221- 237. ISSN-O| 2682-4884 ISSN-P| 1110-5801. https://jarch.journals.ekb.eg/article_333394.html
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