Hangzhou dialect

Hangzhounese, or the Hangzhou dialect, is a Sinitic language spoken in the urban centre of Hangzhou (that is to say, in the districts of Gongshu, Shangcheng, Xihu, Binjiang, and parts of Qiantang), the capital of Zhejiang, China, by over a million speakers.Template:Sfnp It has traditionally been classified as a Northern Wu variety, but has undergone significant Mandarinic influence, due in large part to historical migrations, making it of immense interest to Chinese historical phonologists and dialectologists. Phonologically, the variety has many features that distinguish it from traditional Wu varieties such as Suzhounese and Shanghainese,Template:Sfnp but also exhibits behaviour not seen in other Mandarinic languages. Hangzhounese is also lexically and morphosyntactically difficult to categorise, leading to some linguists calling it a "Mandarinicised Wu" hybrid variety, or even a creole language. Today, Hangzhounese remains an important cultural marker for natives of the city,Template:Sfnp though its cultural significance is not as strong as that of Shanghainese to Shanghai inhabitants.Template:Sfnp Its usage has also declined due to the dominance of Standard Mandarin in education and public life.

Distribution

Hangzhounese is mainly spoken in the urban area in Hangzhou, including the urban area of modern-day Gongshu, Shangcheng, the urban core and seven villages of Xihu, and part of Binjiang.Template:Sfnp The first edition of the Language Atlas of China further restricts this to only the north bank of the Qiantang River,Template:Sfnp whereas the second edition expands its userbase into Yuhang and Xiaoshan as well.Template:Sfnp

Classification

If Hangzhounese is to be classified as a Wu variety, it is the sole member of the Hangzhou cluster () of Northern Wu.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp However, an alternative phylogeny, classifying it as a parallel branch with Huai Chinese, has been proposed.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Hangzhounese, as mentioned above, has a host of features that are of Mandarinic origin. This is primarily due to the Jingkang incident and the large migration wave that accompanied it.Template:Sfnp

Phonological features include:Template:Sfnp

• Non-nasal initial in historical ri (, typically Template:Translit in Wu) and wei (, typically Template:Translit in Wu) initials
• Distribution of the historical light rising tone category, a phenomenon called ""
• The palatalisation of velar initials in QYS second division (Template:Zh)
• Merger of Common Dialectal Chinese (CDC)Template:Sfnp *-ang as in Template:Translit into *-eng as in Template:Translit (compare Suzhounese Template:Translit and Template:Translit)
• Merger of CDC *-uon as in Template:Translit into *-uan as in Template:Translit (compare Shanghainese Template:Translit and Template:Translit)
• Presence of a low Template:Translit vowel in CDC *-a as in Template:Translit where other varieties have Template:Translit (compare Ningbonese Template:Translit)
• Lack of Wu irregular pronunciations, such as the voiced initial of Template:Translit (compare Chuanshanese Template:Translit) and a nasal coda in Template:Translit (compare Changzhounese Template:Translit)

Grammatical features include:

• The personal pronouns as opposed to or in nearby Northern Wu varieties
• Particles such as "negator", "attributive"

Lexical features include:

• Some Mandarinic lexica, such as "table", "to wash", "day", "centipede", "to wear" (cf. , , , , )
• Lack of Wu substrate words such as "aubergine" and "monkey"

It is, however, noteworthy that many of the above features can be seen in other Wu varieties.

Hangzhounese does also have some Wu-like features, such as:Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

• Particles such as "to do poorly", "adverbialiser", "locative"
• The ability to drop the negator in V-neg-V (eg. ) constructions
• Word order features, such as placement of the direct object before the indirect object in ditransitive verbs, placement of the object before the complement in verb-object-complement constructions (eg. )
• Complex bidirectional tone sandhi (as will be explained below)
• Kinship terms such as "mum", "maternal uncle"
• Frequent use of the nominal suffix
• AAB adjectives such as "ice-cold" and "straight as a pen"
• Use of verbal reduplication to indicate the perfective aspect and the imperative mood
• Some Wu lexica, such as "fat", "tall", "to throw", "demonstrative", "time" (cf. , , , , )

It is also of note that Hangzhounese has been gradually gaining Wu Chinese features, such as younger speakers developing new vernacular pronunciations.Template:Sfnp

Some linguists have proposed that Hangzhounese underwent creolisation or koineisation, which would explain the blend of primarily Mandarinic phonology and primarily Wu morphosyntax.Template:Sfnp

History

File:China - Southern Song Dynasty-en.svg

A map of China during the Southern Song dynasty, during which Hangzhou was capital

For much of Hangzhou's history, the lect spoken in the city would have been a typical Wu variety. The linguistic transformation that led to its Mandarinic appearance is in primarily due to the Jingkang incident of the Song dynasty, in which the imperial court was moved from Bianjing (today Kaifeng) to Lin'an, modern day Hangzhou. The event caused a massive influx of Northern Chinese refugees of various walks of life,Template:Sfnp who spoke a variety of Mandarin, dubbed by Zheng Wei as Bianliang Mandarin ().Template:Sfnp

As Hangzhou was the primary political and commercial centre of the region, Hangzhounese also took on the role as a local merchant language and lingua franca,Template:Sfnp leading to many Wu varieties adopting Hangzhounese's Mandarin pronunciations to form a literary layer locally called "Zhejiang Mandarin" (). The effect is most pronounced in lects that are found along trade routes into and out of Hangzhou, such as on the Qiantang River, the Grand Canal, and directly out of the Hangzhou Bay.Template:Sfnp Hangzhounese was also used extensively in Ming dynasty literature, as seen from the many Hangzhounese or otherwise Northern Wu lexica in, for instance, Water Margin.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

During the Qing dynasty, Hangzhounese underwent another instance of Mandarinisation, due to the presence of Manchu bannermen in the city.Template:Sfnp After the end of dynastic rule in China, Hangzhou experienced a large population increase, almost doubling its population between 1947 and 1985. Coupled with tuipu policies, use of Hangzhounese gradually began to decline.Template:Sfnp

Hangzhounese is today a "developing" language, with a rating of 5 on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS), meaning it is still in vigorous use, but its written form are neither sustainable, nor widespread.Template:Sfnp A study in 2016 found that only around Template:Sigfig% of student respondents could proficiently use the variety, which, in contrast to the Template:Sigfig% figure quoted for Shanghai, is low. 3.5% of respondents used Hangzhounese exclusively at home, and a further 15.5% use it alongside Standard Mandarin.Template:Sfnp A different study had respondents that believed that it is inappropriate to use Hangzhounese in official occasions.Template:Sfnp Nonetheless, use of Hangzhounese can at times still be seen in official media, such as in the TV show Old Liutou Tells the News (), which has been running since 2004. The show has been and still is popular to this day.Template:Sfnp

Phonology

File:WIKITONGUES- Chengxi speaking Hanghzounese.webm

A speaker of Hangzhounese

The phonology of Hangzhounese shows a mix of both Mandarinic and Northern Wu features.

Initials

Initial ConsonantsTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		Template:IPA link ⟨m⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨n⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨gn⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨ng⟩
Plosive	plain	Template:IPA link ⟨p⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨t⟩		Template:IPA link ⟨k⟩	(Template:IPA link)
	aspirated	Template:IPA link ⟨ph⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨th⟩		Template:IPA link ⟨kh⟩
	voiced	Template:IPA link ⟨b⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨d⟩		Template:IPA link ⟨g⟩
Affricate	plain		Template:IPA link ⟨ts⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨c⟩
	aspirated		Template:IPA link ⟨tsh⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨ch⟩
	voiced		Template:IPA link (dz)	Template:IPA link ⟨j⟩
Fricative	voiceless	Template:IPA link ⟨f⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨s⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨sh⟩		Template:IPA link ⟨h⟩
	voiced	Template:IPA link ⟨v⟩	Template:IPA link ⟨z⟩			Template:IPA link ⟨gh⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩
Lateral			Template:IPA link ⟨l⟩

Hangzhounese has a three-way contrast in its plosives and affricates, and also has voicing contrast in fricatives. The voiced consonants in Hangzhounese, like Northern Wu languages, are in reality, voiceless consonants with breathy voice.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The labiodental initials are closer to when in front of .Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Sonorants, when paired with dark tones, are at times transcribed with glottalisation.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Finals

The chart below shows the 48 rimes found in Hangzhounese.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Medial	Nucleus
	⟨y⟩	⟨a⟩	⟨e⟩	⟨au⟩	⟨o⟩	⟨eu⟩Template:NoteTag	⟨ei⟩	⟨aen⟩		⟨en⟩	⟨an⟩	⟨on⟩	⟨aq⟩	⟨eq⟩	⟨oq⟩
	⟨i⟩	⟨ia⟩	⟨ie⟩	⟨iau⟩		⟨ieu⟩		⟨ien⟩		⟨in⟩	⟨ian⟩	⟨ion⟩	⟨iaq⟩	⟨iq⟩	⟨ioq⟩
	⟨u⟩	⟨a⟩	⟨ue⟩		⟨uo⟩ Template:NoteTag		⟨uei⟩		⟨uon⟩	⟨uen⟩	⟨uan⟩		⟨uaq⟩		⟨uoq⟩
	⟨yu⟩	⟨ua⟩ Template:NoteTag	⟨ue⟩				⟨uei⟩		⟨uon⟩	⟨uen⟩	⟨uan⟩		⟨uaq⟩	⟨ueq⟩
	⟨iu⟩								⟨iuon⟩	⟨iun⟩				⟨iuq⟩

Other rimes include (in, for instance, ) and syllabic nasals (as in "mum"), (as in "aunt"), and , which is seen in the speech of younger speakers, and patterns similarly to the syllabic nasal in other Northern Wu varieties (eg. in ).

The cross-linguistically rare apical glide appears after dentialveolars and in complementary distribution with the medial.Template:Sfnp

More precise descriptions of these rimes are as follows:Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

• The open rimes are more accurately . Similarly, the rimes are also low in quality.
• The nuclei of the rimes , , , , , and are closing diphthongs, though the closing action is not very pronounced.
• in Hangzhounese is slightly backed.
• when coupled with light tones is realised as . It may also be difficult to distinguish this rime with .
• All instances of in the above chart may vary between , among other possibilities.
• The offglide of is closer to .
• The rimes , , and do not have a closing element; the is more accurately .
• The rimes may be realised as in the speech of older speakers from the old town.
• The coda of , , , , and alternate freely with
• The of is short and not always heard. Similarly, there may be a inserted in and .
• The in and is more accurately .
• represents a rhotic. Younger speakers especially may pronounce it as .

Tones

Hangzhounese, like other Sinitic languages, have phonemic tone. Hangzhounese has seven tone categories, based on the Middle Chinese tone categories.

Monosyllable tonesTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Wugniu	Category	Value	Examples
1	Dark level ()	˧˧˦ 334
2	Light level ()	˨˧ 23
3	Rising ()	˥˧ 53
5	Dark departing ()	˦˥ 45
6	Light departing ()	˩˩˧ 113
7	Dark checked ()	˥ 5
8	Light checked ()	˨˧ 23

Light tones only appear with voiced obstruents and nasal initials, whereas dark tones only appear with voiceless and other sonorant initials. The rising tone acts like a dark tone; historical voiced obstruents with the rising tone category are today realised with the light departing tone.

More precise descriptions of the above are as follows:Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

• The dark level tone (1) is realised as 33 in quick speech
• The light level tone (2) is realised as 21 in quick speech, and in slow speech, a bend ( 213) can be heard
• The dark departing tone (5) is often longer than the other tones, and can thus be transcribed as 445. Tones 1 and 5 therefore can be difficult to distinguish in careful speech
• The two checked tones (7 and 8) are short tones that are high and low in pitch respectively. They only appear with checked syllables, that is to say, those that end with glottal stops ()

Like Northern Wu languages, Hangzhounese exhibits complex tone sandhi. Sandhi chains can be bidirectional, and the most important tonemes in determining the sandhi chain lies closest to the head.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Left-prominent sandhiTemplate:Sfnp

Head tone	Chain length
	1	2	3	4	5
1	˧˧˦ 334	˧ 33 ˧˦ 34	˧ 33 ˧˦ 34 ˥˧ 53	˧ 33 ˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˧ 33 ˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
		˧ 33 ˥˧ 53	˧ 33 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˧ 33 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
2	˨˧ 23	˨ 22 ˧˦ 34	˨ 22 ˧˦ 34 ˥˧ 53	˨ 22 ˨˧ 34 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21
		˨ 22 ˥˧ 53	˨ 22 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˨ 22 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
3	˥˧ 53	˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21	˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21	˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨ 22 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
5	˦˥ 45	˧˦ 34 ˥˧ 53	˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
6	˩˩˧ 113	˩ 11 ˥˧ 53	˩ 11 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˩ 11 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21	˩ 11 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
7	˥ 5	˧ 3 ˧˦ 34	˧ 3 ˧˦ 34 ˥˧ 53	˧ 3 ˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21
		˧ 3 ˥˧ 53	˧ 3 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˧ 3 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
		˥ 5 ˨˩ 21	˥ 5 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21	˥ 5 ˨ 22 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
8	˨˧ 23	˨ 2 ˧˦ 34	˨ 2 ˧˦ 34 ˥˧ 53	˨ 2 ˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˨ 2 ˧˦ 34 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21
		˨ 2 ˥˧ 53	˨ 2 ˥ 55 ˨˩ 21	˨ 2 ˥ 55 ˨ 22 ˨˩ 21

A trisyllabic sandhi chain ˨ 2 ˨ 2 ˧ 33 is also seen in a small number of words starting with light checked syllables.

The top chain of each head tone represents the dominant sandhi chain. The second shows a secondary realisation, often associated with the rising tone category, though this association is not particularly rigid.Template:Sfnp

Left-prominent chains are used in polysyllabic words, and chains spread to subsequent words as well in verb-pronoun constructions and with the noun attributive nouns modify. Sentence-final particles also attach onto chains they follow.Template:Sfnp Some historical light rising syllables may switch categories in sandhi, for instance Template:Translit in "old duck" takes the dark rising pattern, whereas in "huangjiu" it takes the light departing pattern.Template:Sfnp

Right-prominent sandhiTemplate:Sfnp

Head tone	1	2	3	5	6	7	8
Value	˧ 33	˨ 22	˧ 33 ~ ˦ 44	˧ 33 ~ ˧˦ 32	˩ 11~ ˩˨ 12 ~ ˨˧ 23	˧ 3 ~ ˦ 4	˨ 2 ~ ˧ 3

Right-prominent sandhi, on the other hand, is used in verb-object constructions, verb-resultative constructions, and on monosyllabic adverbs and subjects. The right-prominent sandhi tone change only applies to the syllable directly adjacent to the head.Template:Sfnp

Sandhi behaviour in Hangzhounese is, as demonstrated, similar to sandhi behaviour in other Northern Wu languages.

Generational differences

The initial is universally palatalised in younger speakers' speech. Syllables with irregular and initials in older speakers' speech are normalised in younger speakers' idiolects.Template:Sfnp

Standard Mandarin	niǎo	níng	nǎ	nà	liǎng
Old Hangzhounese	liau3	lin2	la3	la3	nian6
New Hangzhounese	gniau3	gnin2	na3	na3	lian6

The initial, when in Standard Mandarin the initial is Template:Translit, is pronounced as by younger speakers.Template:Sfnp

The rime is only found in older speakers' speech, and can also be realised as . Younger speakers merge this rime with .Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

The rime and glide are both merged into their counterparts in younger speakers' speech.Template:Sfnp The nasal element of the and series are lost in younger speakers' speech. Coupled with the - merger, younger speakers therefore merge the , , and rimes.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

The rime series is realised as in the speech of older speakers in the old town.Template:Sfnp The checked and rime series are merged by some speakers.Template:Sfnp

Younger speakers split the rime based on its distribution in Standard Mandarin. When in Standard Mandarin the rime is Template:Translit, younger speakers realise it as ; when in Standard Mandarin the rime is Template:Translit, younger speakers say .Template:Sfnp

There are minor differences in tone distribution and sandhi chains between different age groups.Template:Sfnp

As mentioned above, some speakers may import colloquial pronunciations from nearby Wu varieties. The effect is most pronounced in the speech of younger speakers and female speakers.Template:Sfnp

See also

• Early Mandarin
• Wu Chinese
  • Shanghainese
  • Suzhounese
  • Ningbonese
• List of varieties of Chinese
• Template:Section link

External links

• Wu Association