Garter snake

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Garter snake is the common name for small to medium-sized snakes belonging to the genus Thamnophis in the family Colubridae. They are native to North and Central America, ranging from central Canada in the north to Costa Rica in the south.

With about 37 recognized species and 52 subspecies,[1] garter snakes are highly variable in appearance; generally, they have large round eyes with rounded pupils, a slender build, keeled scales (appearing 'raised'), and a pattern of longitudinal stripes that may or may not include spots (although some have no stripes at all). Certain subspecies have stripes of blue, yellow, or red, mixed with black tops and beige-tan underbelly markings. They also vary significantly in total length, from Template:Cvt.

With no real consensus on the classification of the species of Thamnophis, disagreements between taxonomists and disputed sources (such as field guides) are common. One area of debate, for example, is whether or not two specific types of snake are separate species, or subspecies of the same. Garter snakes are closely related to the genus Nerodia (water snakes), with some species having been moved back and forth between genera.

As garter snakes may retain toxins from their amphibian prey in their liver, they are one of the few species of snakes in the world that can be both venomous and poisonous.

Taxonomy

The first garter snake to be scientifically described was the eastern garter snake (now Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis), by zoologist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The genus Thamnophis was described by Leopold Fitzinger in 1843 as the genus for the garter snakes and ribbon snakes.[2] Many snakes previously identified as their own genera or species have been reclassified as species or subspecies in Thamnophis. The Reptile Database currently recognised 37 species in the genus, some with several subspecies.[3]

Distribution and habitat

Native to North and Central America, species in the genus Thamnophis can be found in all of the lower 48 United States, and all of the Canadian provinces. They are found from the subarctic plains of west-central Canada east through Ontario and Quebec; from Atlantic Canada and south to Florida, across the southern and central U.S. into the arid regions of the southwest and Mexico, Guatemala and south to the neotropics and Costa Rica.[4]

Garter snakes are not originally native to the eastern Canadian island of Newfoundland, but have been breeding there in the wild and gradually spreading since at least 2010. It is unknown how they reached the island, probably accidentally via hay shipments or as escaped pets.[5][6]

Their wide distribution is due to their varied diets and adaptability to different habitats, with varying proximity to water.[7] However, in the western part of North America these snakes are more aquatic than in the eastern portion. Garter snakes live in a variety of habitats, including forests, woodlands, fields, grasslands and lawns, but never far from water, often an adjacent wetland, stream or pond. This reflects the fact that amphibians are a large part of their diet. Garter snakes are often found near small ponds with tall weeds.[8]

Behavior

File:Garter snake tooth.jpg
The posterior tooth of a garter snake

Garter snakes have complex pheromonal communication systems. They can find other snakes by following their pheromone-scented trails. Male and female skin pheromones are so different as to be immediately distinguishable. However, male garter snakes sometimes produce both male and female pheromones. During the mating season, this ability fools other males into attempting to mate with them. This causes the transfer of heat to them in kleptothermy, which is an advantage immediately after hibernation, allowing them to become more active.[9] Male snakes giving off both male and female pheromones have been shown to garner more copulations than normal males in the mating balls that form at the den when females enter the mating melee. A snake hatch can include as many as 57 young.[10]

Garter snakes use the vomeronasal organ to communicate via pheromones through tongue flicking, which gathers chemical cues in the environment. Upon entering the lumen of the organ, the chemical molecules will come into contact with the sensory cells, which are attached to the neurosensory epithelium of the vomeronasal organ.[8]

If disturbed, a garter snake may coil and strike, but it typically hides its head and flails its tail. These snakes will also discharge a malodorous, musky-scented secretion from a gland near the cloaca. This secretion from North American garter snakes contains seven highly odoriferous volatile components: acetic, propanoic, 2-methylpropanoic, butanoic, and 3-methylbutanoic acids; and trimethylamine, and 2-piperidone.[11] They often use these techniques to escape when ensnared by a predator. They will also slither into the water to escape a predator on land. Hawks, crows, egrets, herons, cranes, raccoons, otters and other snake species (such as coral snakes and kingsnakes) will eat garter snakes, with even shrews and frogs eating the juveniles.

File:Garter Snake Scales.tif
Close up of the scales on the back of the common garter snake

Being heterothermic, like all reptiles, garter snakes bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature. During brumation (the reptile equivalent of hibernation), garter snakes typically occupy large communal sites called hibernacula. These snakes will migrate large distances to brumate.[8]

Social behavior

A long-term study by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation has shed light on the social behavior of Butler's garter snakes. The study, conducted in a 250-hectare area near Windsor, Canada, tracked over 3,000 individual snakes over a 12-year period. The findings challenge previous assumptions about solitary snake behavior and suggest that these snakes form social groups and communities. The study revealed that Butler's garter snakes do not wander randomly but instead tend to associate with specific groups of snakes. These groups typically consist of three to four individuals, with some larger groups reaching up to 46 snakes.[12][13]

Diet

File:Garter swallowing frog.jpg
Eating a frog

Garter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature they are capable of overpowering: slugs, earthworms (nightcrawlers, as redworms are toxic to garter snakes), leeches, lizards, amphibians (including frog eggs), minnows, and rodents. When living near water, they eat other aquatic animals. The ribbon snake (Thamnophis saurita) in particular favors frogs (including tadpoles), readily eating them despite their strong chemical defenses. Food is swallowed whole. Garter snakes often adapt to eating whatever they can find and whenever they can find it because food can be either scarce or abundant. Although they feed mostly on live animals they will sometimes eat eggs.[14]

Venom

Garter snakes were long thought to be non-venomous, but discoveries in the early 2000s revealed that they produce a neurotoxic venom.[15] Despite this, garter snakes cannot seriously injure or kill humans with the small amounts of comparatively mild venom they produce and they also lack an effective means of delivering it. In a few cases, some swelling and bruising has been reported.[16] They do have enlarged teeth in the back of their mouths[17] but their gums are significantly larger and the secretions of their Duvernoy's gland are only mildly toxic.[16][18]

Evidence suggests that garter snake and newt populations share an evolutionary link in their tetrodotoxin resistance levels, implying co-evolution between predator and prey.[19] Garter snakes feeding on toxic newts can also retain those toxins in their liver for weeks, making those snakes poisonous as well as venomous.[20]

Conservation status

File:Mating ball of garter snakes.jpg
A mating ball
File:Gartersnake2128.JPG
A young garter snake

Despite the decline in their population from collection as pets (especially in the more northerly regions, in which large groups are collected at hibernation),[21] pollution of aquatic areas, and the introduction of American bullfrogs as potential predators, garter snakes are still some of the most commonly found reptiles in much of their ranges. The San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia), however, has been on the endangered list since 1969. Predation by crayfish has also been responsible for the decline of the narrow-headed garter snake (Thamnophis rufipunctatus).[22] Many breeders have bred all species of garter snakes, making it a popular breed.

Species and subspecies

Arranged alphabetically by scientific name:

Image Name Subspecies Distribution
Thamnophis ahumadai C. Grünwald, Mendoza-Portilla, A. Grünwald, Montaño-Ruvalcaba, Franz-Chávez, García-Vázquez, & Reyes-Velasco, 2024 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".[23] Jalisco Mountain, Mexico
File:Thamnophis atratus (1).jpg Aquatic garter snake, Thamnophis atratus (Kennicott, 1860) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". coast of Oregon and California.
Bogert's garter snake, Thamnophis bogerti Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Oaxaca, Mexico
Shorthead garter snake, Thamnophis brachystoma (Cope, 1892)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York.
File:Thamnophis butleri.jpg Butler's garter snake, Thamnophis butleri (Cope, 1889) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". northwestern Ohio, northeastern Indiana, the eastern portion of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, and the adjacent extreme southern tip of Ontario, Canada.
Goldenhead garter snake, Thamnophis chrysocephalus (Cope, 1885)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Conant's garter snake, Thamnophis conanti Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico.
Cope's mountain meadow snake, Thamnophis copei Dugès, 1879Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
File:Sierra garter snake handled.jpg Sierra garter snake, Thamnophis couchii (Kennicott, 1859) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". California and Oregon in the United States
File:Thamnophis cyrtopsis ocellatus.jpg Blackneck garter snake, Thamnophis cyrtopsis (Kennicott, 1860)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Western blackneck garter snake, T. c. cyrtopsis (Kennicott, 1860)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Eastern blackneck garter snake, T. c. ocellatus (Cope, 1880)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Tropical blackneck garter snake, T. c. collaris (Jan, 1863)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 southwestern United States, Mexico and Guatemala
File:Coast Garter Snake.jpg Western terrestrial garter snake, Thamnophis elegans (Baird & Girard, 1853) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Arizona garter snake, T. e. arizonae W. Tanner & Lowe, 1989Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Mountain garter snake, T. e. elegans (Baird & Girard, 1853)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • San Pedro Mártir garter snake, T. e. hueyi Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1923Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Coastal garter snake, T. e. terrestris Fox, 1951Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Wandering garter snake, T. e. vagrans (Baird & Girard, 1853)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Upper Basin garter snake, T. e. vascotanneri W. Tanner & Lowe, 1989Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 central British Columbia, central Alberta, and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, central United States
File:Thamnophis eques1.jpg Mexican garter snake, Thamnophis eques (Reuss, 1834) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Mexican garter snake, T. e. eques (Reuss, 1834)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Laguna Totolcingo garter snake, T. e. carmenensis Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. cuitzeoensis Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. diluvialis Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. insperatus Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Northern Mexican garter snake, T. e. megalops (Kennicott, 1860)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. obscurus Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. patzcuaroensis Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. scotti Conant, 2003Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. e. virgatenuis Conant, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 Mexico and in the United States (Arizona and New Mexico).
File:Thamnophis errans.jpg Mexican wandering garter snake, Thamnophis errans H. M. Smith, 1942Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas States of Mexico.
Montane garter snake, Thamnophis exsul Rossman, 1969 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Fox's mountain meadow snake, Thamnophis foxi Rossman & Blaney, 1968Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Highland garter snake, Thamnophis fulvus (Bocourt, 1893)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador.
File:Giant Garter Snake 1.jpg Giant garter snake, Thamnophis gigas Fitch, 1940Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". central California.
Godman's garter snake,[24] Thamnophis godmani (Günther, 1894) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". southern Mexico
File:Thamnophis hammondii 02.jpg Two-striped garter snake, Thamnophis hammondii (Kennicott, 1860) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". central California to Baja California, Mexico
Liner's garter snake, Thamnophis lineri[25] Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
File:Thamnophis marcianus.jpg Checkered garter snake, Thamnophis marcianus (Baird & Girard, 1853)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. m. marcianus (Baird & Girard, 1853)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. m. praeocularis (Bocourt, 1892)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. m. bovalli (Dunn, 1940)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America.
File:Blackbelly Garter Snake imported from iNaturalist photo 162669277 on 15 November 2021.jpg Blackbelly garter snake, Thamnophis melanogaster (Peters, 1864)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Tamaulipan montane garter snake, Thamnophis mendax Walker, 1955 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Southern Durango spotted garter snake, Thamnophis nigronuchalis Thompson, 1957Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Durango, Mexico.
File:Thamnophis ordinoides 071616 A.jpg Northwestern garter snake, Thamnophis ordinoides (Baird & Girard, 1852)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". California, Oregon, and Washington; in Canada, it is found in British Columbia
Tepalcatepec Valley garter snake, Thamnophis postremus Smith, 1942Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
File:Thamnophis proximus rubrilineatus.jpg Western ribbon snake, Thamnophis proximus (Say, 1823)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Chiapas Highlands ribbon snake, T. p. alpinus Rossman, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Arid land ribbon snake, T. p. diabolicus Rossman, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Gulf Coast ribbon snake, T. p. orarius Rossman, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Orangestripe ribbon snake or western ribbon snake T. p. proximus (Say, 1823)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Redstripe ribbon snake, T. p. rubrilineatus Rossman, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Mexican ribbon snake, T. p. rutiloris (Cope, 1885)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 western United States, Mexico, and Central America
File:Thamnophis pulchrilatus4.jpg Yellow-throated garter snake, Thamnophis pulchrilatus (Cope, 1885) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
File:Thamnophis-radix.JPG Plains garter snake, Thamnophis radix (Baird & Girard, 1853) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". central United States as far north as Canada and as far south as Texas.
Rossman's garter snake, Thamnophis rossmani Conant, 2000 Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Narrow-headed garter snake, Thamnophis rufipunctatus (Cope, 1875) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Arizona and New Mexico, and in the Mexican states of Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango
File:EasternRibbonSnake.jpg Ribbon snake, Thamnophis saurita (Linnaeus, 1766) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Bluestripe ribbon snake, T. s. nitae Rossman, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Southern ribbon snake, T. s. sackenii (Kennicott, 1859)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Eastern ribbon snake, T. s. saurita (Linnaeus, 1766)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Northern ribbon snake, T. s. septentrionalis Rossman, 1963Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 Eastern North America
File:Thamnophis scalaris.jpg Longtail alpine garter snake, Thamnophis scalaris (Cope, 1861) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Short-tail alpine garter snake, Thamnophis scaliger (Jan, 1863) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
File:Thamnophis sirtalis annectens.jpg Common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis (Linnaeus, 1758) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Texas garter snake, T. s. annectens Brown, 1950Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Red-spotted garter snake, T. s. concinnus (Hallowell, 1852)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • New Mexico garter snake, T. s. dorsalis (Baird & Girard, 1853)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • valley garter snake, T. s. fitchi Fox, 1951Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • California red-sided garter snake, T. s. infernalis (Blainville, 1835)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. s. lowei W. Tanner, 1988Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Maritime garter snake, T. s. pallidulus Allen, 1899Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Red-sided garter snake, T. s. parietalis (Say, 1823)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Puget Sound garter snake, T. s. pickeringii (Baird & Girard, 1853)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Blue-striped garter snake, T. s. similis Rossman, 1965Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Eastern garter snake, T. s. sirtalis (Linnaeus, 1758)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Chicago garter snake, T. s. semifasciatus (Cope, 1892)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • San Francisco garter snake, T. s. tetrataenia (Cope, 1875)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 North America
Sumichrast's garter snake, Thamnophis sumichrasti (Cope, 1866)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
Madrean narrow-headed garter snake, Thamnophis unilabialis W. Tanner, 1985Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters". Mexico.
West Coast garter snake, Thamnophis validus (Kennicott, 1860) Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • Mexican Pacific Lowlands garter snake, T. v. celaeno (Cope, 1860)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. v. isabellae (Conant, 1953)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. v. thamnophisoides (Conant, 1961)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
  • T. v. validus (Kennicott, 1860)Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
 Mexico.

In the above list, a binomial authority or a trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Thamnophis.

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  2. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  3. ↑ Template:Cite taxon
  4. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  5. ↑ CBC News, "Think there aren't any snakes in Newfoundland? Think again", June 25, 2024. Accessed on June 27, 2024.
  6. ↑ Nature Conservancy Canada, "Snakes, saints and sightings: What you can do to help uncover the mystery of gartersnakes in Newfoundland". Accessed on June 27, 2024.
  7. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  8. ↑ a b c Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  9. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  10. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  11. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  12. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  13. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  14. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  16. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  17. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  18. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  20. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  21. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  22. ↑ Template:Cite iucn
  23. ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
  24. ↑ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. Template:ISBN. (Thamnophis godmani, p. 102).
  25. ↑ Thamnophis lineri. The Reptile Database. http://www.reptile-database.org.

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Further reading

  • Conant R (1975). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. xviii + 429 pp. + Plates 1-48. Template:ISBN (hardcover), Template:ISBN (paperback). (Genus Thamnophis, p. 157).
  • Fitzinger L (1843). Systema Reptilium, Fasciculus Primus, Amblyglossae. Vienna: Braumüller & Seidel. 106 pp. + indices. (Thamnophis, new genus, p. 26). (in Latin).
  • Goin, Coleman J., Goin, Olive B.; Zug, George R. (1978). Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp. Template:ISBN. (Thamnophis, pp. 132, 156, 326).
  • Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 47 plates, 207 figures. Template:ISBN. (Genus Thamnophis, p. 426).
  • Ruthven AG (1908). "Variation and Genetic Relationships of the Garter-snakes". Bulletin of the United States National Museum 61: 1–201, 82 figures.
  • Schmidt, Karl P.; Davis, D. Dwight (1941). Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 365 pp., 34 plates, 103 figures. (Genus Thamnophis, p. 236).
  • Stebbins RC (2003). A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians, Third Edition. The Peterson Field Guide Series. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. xiii + 533 pp., 56 plates. Template:ISBN. (Genus Thamnophis, pp. 373–374).
  • Vandenburgh J, Slevin JR (1918). "The Garter-snakes of Western North America". Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Fourth Series 8: 181–270, 11 plates.

External links

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