Foreign relations of Germany
Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Sidebar with collapsible listsThe Federal Republic of Germany (up until 1990 abbreviated as FRG, opposed to GDR) is a Central European country and founding member of the European Union, a member of G4, G7, the G20, the Organizations for Economic Co-operation and Development, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the only remaining of two former German members of the United Nations. It maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than 190 countries. As one of the world's leading industrialized countries it is recognized as a major power in European and global affairs.
Germany's relations to other powers are characterized by its past and by its commitment to promote peace, stability, the rule of law and democracy, while it seeks a progressing integration into the European Union. The heavily West-aligned Germany inherited diplomatic relations and missions from communist East Germany, which was "Germany" to those countries which had only relations to one of the two German states. However, due to its allegiance and market economy, the perception of Germany by some of the former Eastern bloc countries changed with Germany's reunification.
History
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since the foundation of Germany in 1871.
Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War (also named the German War or the German-German War) in 1866, excluding the Austrian Empire from Germany. The unification of Germany was the political purpose of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller German states joined behind remaining Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The German Empire was erected in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.
Germany's diplomatic weight increased by transitioning its economy and society from an agrarian country to Europe's second industrial powerhouse, which soon sought competition with the leading economic power of that era, Great Britain. As from 1884, Germany engaged – as the last major European power – in oversea colonization, but held only few colonies for economical exploitation, leaving Germany vulnerable to the protectionist mercantilism of other colonial powers who controlled the world's market of raw materials. Germany's development and transition led to internal tensions, which Emperor Wilhelm II., infamous for his Hun speech throughout Europe and an increasing diplomatic liability, sought to hedge with naval armament and increased imperialism much to the suspicion of the other European powers, especially the Entente Cordiale. Encircled by the Triple Entente, and due to the negligence of Germany's emperor and his diplomatic advisors by giving Austria-Hungary a "blank cheque" on treating Entente-allied Serbia for the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the Empire of Germany had to fight back its enemies in a war on multiple fronts and was cut off from international trade routes, leading to hunger and impoverishment in Europe's most populous country.
Germany was defeated in the battlefield in 1918, with its riches turning to spoils for the victors. The country had neither say nor seat at the table on which the victors negotiated how Germany and its treasures would be apportioned. The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to convey away Alsace-Lorraine to France, a part of East Prussia to the Second Polish Republic and to accept the occupation of major industrial areas around Germany's centers for coal and steel production in Silesia and the Rhine province. When Germany was unable to fulfill the Allied demand for reparations in gold, France occupied the Ruhr valley to shave Germany's coal production. The Weimar Republic had to solve these crises to gain back its international stand in diplomacy, which lead Germany to joining the League of Nations in 1926.
However, the ransack and ongoing compromisation of Germany after World War I came with a toll on its internal stability and put the republic's attempt to establish peace and order to failure and its diplomatic influence from marginal to inept. Political extremist factions from left and right put the screws on Germany's politics by rallying against the weakened republic. International indifference to the events in the defeated country only turned into cautious unease after the Reichstag fire and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933. The newly appointed chancellor ran on a platform of revising the Treaty of Versailles by rearmament, shaking off the shackles of occupation and "gaining room to live" (occupation) in the East. Racial and genocidal undertones in his program were internationally ignored as the new government was able to establish the long-sought peace and order in Germany and pursued international recognition as a stabilizing power: although Hitler's government withdrew Germany's membership from the League of Nations in 1933 much to the wary of the remaining nations, Germany managed to appease the world by hosting the Olympic Games of 1936 and presenting the world a stable, progressive and prospering country while secretly starting a program for rearmament at the same time. Shortly after the games, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, which sought to establish a common sphere of interest between Germany and Japan and their allied countries as well. Initially the pact was directed against the Soviet Union.
Despite its public presentation, Germany soon would raise suspicion by its rapidly progressing military programs, which weren't overlooked by international press. With massive interference in the internal affairs of Austria, which was unable to overcome economical challenges for 20 years after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany managed to annex Austria in the Anschluss, reversing the resolution of the German war 70 years earlier and violating the Treaty of Versailles once again, which forbade the union of both countries. Germany tested its newly gained strength on boosting the Sudeten crisis of 1938, as Sudeten Germans, attracted by Germany and its success, rebelled against Czechoslovak authorities. The crisis lead to the Munich Agreement, the first gain in territory for Germany since World War I. However, Hitler was dissatisfied with how the crisis was solved peacefully. The policy of appeasement by Neville Chamberlain allowed for Hitler to violate the agreement shortly after signing it, by dissolving the Czechoslovak government and occupying the rest of the country in 1939, followed by the wary European powers of France and Great Britain to draw a red line for Poland. Germany signed the Pact of Steel with Italy, shaping with the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan before and with the Tripartite Pact later on, what will come to be the Axis alliance.
After signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the USSR on 24 August 1939, which led Japan to distance itself from Germany until the Tripartite Pact was signed in 1940, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, with the declaration of war followed by Britain and France three days later. The declarations of war did little to change the outcome of the Blitzkrieg against Poland, which soon was occupied by German and Soviet forces. Less than two years later, Germany would invade the USSR under violation of the pact. The same year, the Axis-allied Japanese Empire would attack Pearl Harbor, and as Germany was bound to aid Japan diplomatically by the Tripartite Pact, Hitler declared war against the USA four days after, unintentionally ending any remaining meaningful isolationist opposition in the U.S. against joining the European war and changing the U.S. stance to the rest of the world to this day.
The following years, German diplomacy is occupied with supporting the war effort and keeping together the Axis alliance as well as attending to the minor Axis-allied governments in Europe, such as Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria (all Warsaw Pact states after the Soviet Union won the war in the East) and Croatia to facilitate the "Final Solution". As Germany found itself on the losing side over time, Germany's diplomacy lost its ability to back up the increasingly futile war effort. Only the invocation of favors and long-lasting diplomatic aid and relationships with countries like Chile and Argentina, as well as their own network, enabled the escape of some Nazi high-ranks and collaborators into exile, such as Dr. Josef Mengele. The government of Germany, and therefore its diplomatic corps, ceased to exist according to the Allied Control Council's 1st Proclamation.
Germany as a state was only reestablished in August 1949 in three of the four Allied occupation zones, but international representation for the state was not reestablished until 15 March 1951. As a habit, chancellor Konrad Adenauer employed former Nazis for his administration, and for foreign affairs, he employed former NSDAP diplomats, which left a dark stain on the founding history of the newly formed Federal Foreign Office as a democratic institution.
The first years of the Bonn republic were characterized by the efforts of a second democratic Germany to rehabilitate itself in the eyes of the world. Adenauer's government decided to align West Germany with the Western bloc and made controversial decisions in its early years. Only ten years after World War II has ended, his government decided to rearm Germany once again, founding the Bundeswehr in 1955 and joining the NATO, after he discarded Stalin's attempt to negotiate reunification and neutralization of Germany in 1952. The years of Germany's division and the relations of the two German states, West-German FRG and East-German GDR, to each other mirrored the grander conflict at the Iron Curtain and the two systems. Mutual distrust, exclusion and agitation against one another captured the division of the two German nations. The FRG would characterize any attempt to open diplomatic relations to "the other German state" as an unfriendly act which would provoke the closure of the West-German diplomatic mission in the attempting country. The GDR assumed the sole right of representation for all Germans within the Eastern bloc. However, West Germany attracted some of the communist countries to open diplomatic missions despite the risk of spurning the East-German government, as the Eastern bloc was in dire need of hard currency and its members tried to open channels to markets which would trade in such.
In the 1970s, chancellor Willy Brandt would attempt to ease the relations between the two German states to prevent future confrontations like the Cuba crisis a few years earlier, in which the world narrowly escaped a World War III and nuclear annihilation. West Germany acknowledged the borders which were established after World War II, namely the Oder–Neisse line with Poland. The chancellor's Kniefall von Warschau would mark a major pivot point in the international perception of Germany, from a defeated and criminal warmongering power to a society which collectively would feel ashamed by its past, would swear to abstain military power and dominance and to uphold peace and to seek friendly relations with the People Germany wronged in the past. The gesture found cautiously positive remarks internationally, and Willy Brandt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1971, to this day the only German chancellor ever being awarded the prize. 1973, both East and West Germany became United Nations members.
Willy Brandt's policies helped grander diplomatic efforts between the two super powers and would bear fruit shortly after his tenure, when the Helsinki Accords were signed in 1975. The Accords enabled organizations of the civil society and NGOs to assess whether the Soviet Union would abide the legally binding declarations it signed, for the rule of law, civil liberties and guarantees of property. They also lead to the arising of human rights activism in the East bloc and to media activity directed from the West towards the East.
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
"Leonid Brezhnev had looked forward, Anatoly Dobrynin recalls, to the 'publicity he would gain... when the Soviet public learned of the final settlement of the postwar boundaries for which they had sacrificed so much'... '[Instead, the Helsinki Accords] gradually became a manifesto of the dissident and liberal movement'... What this meant was that the people who lived under these [communist] systems — at least the more courageous — could claim official permission to say what they thought."
Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Especially for the partaking East German government, which was confident at first the Accords would denote a victory for East bloc diplomacy, the Accords would turn out to be a calamity in internal affairs. West German media, consumed by the East German population despite attempts of inhibition, informed their audience about their rights the East German government just signed off on, very much including the sensitive issue of freedom of movement, especially between the two German states which shared a fortified and dangerous-to-life border, symbolized by the Berlin Wall. Ever since the Accords have been signed, the East German government had to face increasing mail of citizens who petitioned for "permanent departure" to West Germany, invoking the Helsinki Accords.
As East Germany's economical situation became untenable in the 1980s, West German prime minister of Bavaria, Franz Josef Strauß, procured a new credit line for the GDR in 1983, which (by its interest) would impede the economical collapse of East Germany. Combined with the growing frictions within East Germany's society and the continuous escape movement of Germans through Eastern Europe and diplomatic missions of Germany, the GDR would survive its 40th anniversary and peaceful protests by only less than a year, with the collapse of its communist government heavily quickened by negotiations of West Germany to enable the "permanent departure" of Germans by a non-stop train from the Czech Republic through East Germany to West Germany. The departure met intense media coverage, creating a lasting impression on both sides of the German border and forecasting the eventual fall of the Berlin Wall.
In 1990, both German states with both freely elected governments, as well as the four former occupying powers, would sign an agreement about Germany's future. The agreement became effective on 3 October of the same year, which became the German Unity Day.
Primary institutions and actors
Federal Cabinet
The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office. In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction. The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function. Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.
Bundestag
With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity. Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy. The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties. If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag.[2]
In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation. Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position.[3] A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.[3]
NGOs
There is a raft of NGOs in Germany that engage foreign policy issues. These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge). While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one. In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking.[4] The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of conflict resolution, development cooperation and humanitarian aid for fragile states. The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy.[4]
Disputes
In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
The government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder backed the following U.S. military actions, sending Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the Taliban.
Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops.[5] This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States.
In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains. The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains.
As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led International Security Assistance Force force in Afghanistan as part of the war on terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200).[6] German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country.
However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan.[7][8]
Global initiatives
Humanitarian aid and development cooperation
Germany is the second largest net contributor to the United Nations.[9] The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations, which are currently working in more than 60 countries.[10] The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[11] In 2024 Germany was the second biggest donor of development cooperation after the United States, spending 32.4 billion USD, equivalent to 0.67% of GNI, on Official development assistance.[12]
Ecological involvement
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
International organizations
Germany is a member of the P5+1, Council of Europe, European Union, European Space Agency, G4, G7, International Monetary Fund, NATO, OECD, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, UN, World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization.
European Union
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
European integration has gone a long way since the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:
Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany. Germany seeks to maintain peace through the "deepening" of integration among current members of the European Union member states
- European Defence Force
- Introduction of the single currency € Euro
Germany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.
NATO
Under the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
UN
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, as part of the Reform of the United Nations. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.
This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes. The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body.[13] The U.S. is sending mixed signals.
NATO member states, including Germany, decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations.[14]
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which the Federal Republic of Germany maintains diplomatic relations with:
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
Bilateral relations
Africa
Americas
| Country | Notes |
|---|---|
| File:Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg Antigua and Barbuda |
|
| File:Flag of Argentina.svg Argentina | See Argentina–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of the Bahamas.svg Bahamas |
|
| File:Flag of Barbados.svg Barbados | See Barbados–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Belize.svg Belize | See Belize–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Bolivia.svg Bolivia | See Bolivia–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Brazil.svg Brazil | See Brazil–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg Canada | See Canada–Germany relations
Canada operates consulates in Munich and Düsseldorf.[82] In addition to its embassy in Ottawa, Germany maintains consulates in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[82] |
| File:Flag of Chile.svg Chile | See Chile–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Colombia.svg Colombia | See Colombia–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Costa Rica.svg Costa Rica | See Costa Rica–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Cuba.svg Cuba | See Cuba–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Dominica.svg Dominica |
|
| File:Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg Dominican Republic | See Dominican Republic–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Ecuador.svg Ecuador | See Ecuador–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of El Salvador.svg El Salvador | See El Salvador–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Grenada.svg Grenada |
|
| File:Flag of Guatemala.svg Guatemala | See Germany–Guatemala relations
|
| File:Flag of Guyana.svg Guyana | See Germany–Guyana relations
|
| File:Flag of Haiti.svg Haiti | See Germany–Haiti relations
|
| File:Flag of Honduras (2022-).svg Honduras | See Germany–Honduras relations
|
| File:Flag of Jamaica.svg Jamaica | See Germany–Jamaica relations |
| File:Flag of Mexico.svg Mexico | See Germany–Mexico relations
|
| File:Flag of Nicaragua.svg Nicaragua | See Germany–Nicaragua relations |
| File:Flag of Panama.svg Panama |
|
| File:Flag of Paraguay.svg Paraguay | See Germany–Paraguay relations
|
| File:Flag of Peru.svg Peru | See Germany–Peru relations
|
| Template:Country data St. Kitts and Nevis |
|
| Template:Country data St. Lucia |
|
| Template:Country data St. Vincent and the Grenadines |
|
| File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | See Germany–Suriname relations
|
| File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Trinidad and Tobago |
|
| File:Flag of the United States.svg United States | See Germany–United States relations
Former chancellor Angela Merkel has sought warmer relations with the United States and to rebuild political ties on common values and beliefs.
|
| File:Flag of Uruguay.svg Uruguay | See Germany–Uruguay relations
|
| File:Flag of Venezuela.svg Venezuela | See Germany–Venezuela relations |
Asia
| Country | Notes |
|---|---|
| File:Flag of Afghanistan (2013–2021).svg Afghanistan | See Afghanistan–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Armenia.svg Armenia | See Armenia–Germany relations
Armenian-German relations have always been stable and solid; they continue to work together and advance through the years in cooperation. Their leaders have discussed bilateral relations and noted that they have considerably improved over the last few years.[117] |
| File:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg Azerbaijan | See Azerbaijan–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Bahrain.svg Bahrain | See Bahrain–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg Bangladesh | Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 East Germany was the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognise Bangladesh in 1972.[122] Bangladesh also warmly greeted German reunification. As an economic power as well as an important member of the European Union (EU), Germany is a reliable partner of Bangladesh in development cooperation. After establishment of diplomatic relations, the bilateral relations between the two countries began to grow steadily. Bangladesh is a priority partner country of German Development Cooperation (GTZ). In trade with Germany, Bangladesh has for years recorded a large surplus. Germany is the second largest export market of Bangladesh after the US. The cultural relationship of both the countries is very strong. The cultural cooperation between them is mainly channeled through the Goethe Institute that work on developing the cultural ties between both the countries by sponsoring local and German cultural activities. Both Germany and Bangladesh share common views on various international issues and work together in the UN and in other international forum. They have maintained and developed close and friendly relations in a wide range of field. The two countries are harmonized together by their commitment to various sectors mutually agreed upon, which is expected to be strengthened further in future.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
| File:Flag of Bhutan.svg Bhutan | The Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of Bhutan have maintained diplomatic relations since 25 November 2020. This move further deepened the friendly relations between the two countries. Consular relations have been in place since July 2000. Bhutan has agreed to let Germany set up an honorary consulate in Thimphu. Bhutan has an honorary consulate-general in Germany. |
| File:Flag of Brunei.svg Brunei | See Brunei–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Cambodia.svg Cambodia | See Cambodia–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg China | See China–Germany relations
Germany has good relationships with the People's Republic of China, even though Angela Merkel and large parts of Germany's political class have recently criticised the People's Republic for holding back reforms in the field of democracy and human rights. In recent years trade between them has reached high volumes, both in imports and exports.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Germany, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang internment camps.[128][129]
|
| File:Flag of Hong Kong.svg Hong Kong | See Germany–Hong Kong relations
There are no formal diplomatic relations between Hong Kong and Germany, due to the character of Hong Kong being a Special Administrative Region and not an independent nation.
|
| File:Flag of India.svg India | Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.[132] Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Germany was one of the first countries to agree with the Indo-US Nuclear deal. |
| File:Flag of Indonesia.svg Indonesia | See Germany–Indonesia relations
|
| File:Flag of Iran.svg Iran | See Germany–Iran relations |
| File:Flag of Iraq.svg Iraq | See Germany–Iraq relations |
| File:Flag of Israel.svg Israel | See Germany–Israel relations
Germany-Israel relations refers to the special relationship between Israel and Germany based on shared beliefs, Western values and a combination of historical perspectives.[147] Among the most important factors in their relations is Nazi Germany's role in the genocide of European Jews during the Holocaust.[148] Following German history during the Holocaust, one of Postwar Germany's aims was to establish and maintain relations of Wiedergutmachung with the State of Israel. Starting with the Reparations Agreement in 1952, support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy. Germany has been actively involved in the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in 1979, the Oslo Accords (1993) which led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the continuing Israeli–Palestinian peace process which make Germany arguably (next to the United States) Israel's closest ally.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
|
| File:Flag of Japan.svg Japan | See Germany–Japan relations
Regular meetings between the two countries have led to several cooperations. In 2004 German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan,[150][151] the promotion of economic exchange activities,[152] youth and sports exchanges[153] as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.[154] After China, Japan is Germany's principal trading partner in Asia in 2006.[155] |
| File:Flag of Jordan.svg Jordan | See Germany–Jordan relations |
| File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Kazakhstan | See Germany–Kazakhstan relations
|
| File:Flag of Kuwait.svg Kuwait | See Germany–Kuwait relations
|
| File:Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg Kyrgyzstan | |
| File:Flag of Laos.svg Laos | See Germany–Laos relations |
| File:Flag of Lebanon.svg Lebanon | See Germany–Lebanon relations |
| File:Flag of Malaysia.svg Malaysia | See Germany–Malaysia relations
|
| File:Flag of Maldives.svg Maldives | See Germany–Maldives relations
|
| File:Flag of Mongolia.svg Mongolia | See Germany–Mongolia relations
|
| File:Flag of Nepal.svg Nepal | See Germany–Nepal relations |
| File:Flag of North Korea.svg North Korea | See Germany–North Korea relations |
| File:Flag of Oman.svg Oman | See Germany–Oman relations |
| File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Pakistan | See Germany–Pakistan relations
Pakistan and Germany enjoy extremely close, warm and historical relations.[170] Germany is Pakistan's fourth largest trading partner and biggest trading partner in the EU. Germany has been a reliable partner in trade, development, military, scientific and cultural co-operation. The collaboration between Germany and Pakistan dates back to the creation of Pakistan. Germany is home to 53,668 Pakistani immigrants.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
| Template:Flagicon "Palestinian territories"Template:Efn | See Germany–Palestine relations |
| File:Flag of the Philippines.svg Philippines | See Germany–Philippines relations
The relationship between Germany and the Philippines remains strong and positive. In 1955 an agreement was signed which led to a dynamic cooperation between the two countries.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". |
| File:Flag of Qatar.svg Qatar | See Germany–Qatar relations |
| File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Saudi Arabia | See Germany–Saudi Arabia relations |
| File:Flag of Singapore.svg Singapore | See Germany–Singapore relations
|
| File:Flag of South Korea.svg South Korea | See Germany–South Korea relations
|
| File:Flag of Sri Lanka.svg Sri Lanka | See Germany–Sri Lanka relations |
| Script error: No such module "flag". | See Germany–Syria relations
|
| File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Taiwan | See Germany–Taiwan relations
Germany has maintained and expanded economic and informal ties with Taiwan while balancing its relationship with the PRC.[183] |
| File:Flag of Tajikistan.svg Tajikistan | See Germany–Tajikistan relations |
| File:Flag of Thailand.svg Thailand | See Germany–Thailand relations |
| File:Flag of Turkey.svg Turkey | See Germany–Turkey relations
Good Turkish/Ottoman-German relations from the 19th century onwards. They were allies in First World War. Germany promoted Turkish immigration after 1945 when it suffered an acute labor shortage. They were called Gastarbeiter (German for guest workers). Most Turks in Germany trace their ancestry to Central and Eastern Anatolia. Today, Turks are Germany's largest ethnic minority and form most of Germany's Muslim minority. Berlin is home to about 250,000 Turks,[187] making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey.
|
| File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg Turkmenistan | |
| File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg United Arab Emirates | See Germany–United Arab Emirates relations |
| File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg Uzbekistan | See Germany–Uzbekistan relations |
| File:Flag of Vietnam.svg Vietnam | See Germany–Vietnam relations
|
| File:Flag of Yemen.svg Yemen | See Germany–Yemen relations |
Europe
- Balkans
Script error: No such module "Labelled list hatnote".
The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of NATO.
Germany was one of the first nations to recognize Croatia and Slovenia as independent nations, rejecting the concept of Yugoslavia as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-Belgrade policy). This is why Serb authorities sometimes referred to "new German imperialism" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".[194] German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring "peace and stability" to the Balkans.
- Central Europe
Weimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).
| Country | Notes |
|---|---|
| File:Flag of Albania.svg Albania | See Albania-Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Andorra.svg Andorra |
|
| File:Flag of Austria.svg Austria | See Austria–Germany relations
Relations between them are close because as countries have strong historical and cultural ties.
|
| File:Flag of Belarus.svg Belarus | See Belarus-Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Belgium | See Belgium–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg Bosnia and Herzegovina | See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Germany relations
The German government has made continuous efforts concerning the peace process after the civil war. |
| File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg Bulgaria | See Bulgaria–Germany relations
The Bulgarian government views Germany as its key strategic partner in the EU.
|
| File:Flag of Croatia.svg Croatia | See Croatia–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Cyprus.svg Cyprus | See Cyprus–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Czech Republic | See Czech Republic–Germany relations
Today, they share 815 km of common borders. |
| File:Flag of Denmark.svg Denmark | See Denmark–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Estonia.svg Estonia | See Estonia–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of Finland.svg Finland | See Finland–Germany relations
|
| File:Flag of France.svg France | See France–Germany relations
Being the historic core of Europe and the "twin engine for European integration", the cooperation with France is one of the most central elements of German foreign policy. The Elysée Treaty from 1963 set the foundation for a collaboration that – next to the European project – also repeatedly called for a "Core Union" with maximum integration.[212] In recent times, France and Germany are among the most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU. They are sometimes described as the "twin engine" or "core countries" pushing for moves.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
|
| File:Flag of Greece.svg Greece | See Germany–Greece relations
|
| Template:Country data Georgia | See Georgia–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Vatican City (2023–present).svg Holy See | See Germany–Holy See relations
|
| File:Flag of Hungary.svg Hungary | See Germany–Hungary relations
|
| File:Flag of Iceland.svg Iceland | See Germany–Iceland relations
|
| File:Flag of Ireland.svg Ireland | See Germany–Ireland relations
|
| File:Flag of Italy.svg Italy | See Germany–Italy relations
|
| File:Flag of Kosovo.svg Kosovo | See Germany–Kosovo relations |
| File:Flag of Latvia.svg Latvia | See Germany–Latvia relations
|
| File:Flag of Liechtenstein.svg Liechtenstein | See Germany–Liechtenstein relations
|
| File:Flag of Lithuania.svg Lithuania | See Germany–Lithuania relations |
| File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg Luxembourg | See Germany–Luxembourg relations
|
| File:Flag of Malta.svg Malta | See Germany–Malta relations
|
| File:Flag of Moldova.svg Moldova | See Germany–Moldova relations
|
| File:Flag of Monaco.svg Monaco |
|
| File:Flag of Montenegro.svg Montenegro | See Germany–Montenegro relations |
| File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Netherlands | See Germany–Netherlands relations
|
| Template:Country data North Macedonia | See Germany–North Macedonia relations |
| File:Flag of Norway.svg Norway | See Germany–Norway relations |
| File:Flag of Poland.svg Poland | See Germany–Poland relations
During the Cold War, communist Poland had good relations with East Germany, but had strained relations with West Germany. After the fall of communism, Poland and the reunited Germany have had a mostly positive but occasionally strained relationship due to some political issues. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Germany has been a proponent of Poland's participation in NATO and the European Union. The Polish-German border is 467 km long.[240]
|
| File:Flag of Portugal.svg Portugal | See Germany–Portugal relations
|
| File:Flag of Romania.svg Romania | See Germany–Romania relations
|
| File:Flag of Russia.svg Russia | See Germany–Russia relations
Germany tries to keep Russia engaged with the rest of the Western world. The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democracy in Russia, which is part of the Western world.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".
|
| File:Flag of San Marino.svg San Marino |
|
| File:Flag of Serbia.svg Serbia | See Germany–Serbia relations
|
| File:Flag of Slovakia.svg Slovakia | See Germany–Slovakia relations
|
| File:Flag of Slovenia.svg Slovenia |
See Germany–Slovenia relations
|
| File:Flag of the Order of St. John (various).svg Sovereign Military Order of Malta | |
| File:Flag of Spain.svg Spain | See Germany–Spain relations
|
| File:Flag of Sweden.svg Sweden | See Germany–Sweden relations
|
| File:Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg Switzerland | See Germany–Switzerland relations |
| File:Flag of Ukraine.svg Ukraine | See Germany–Ukraine relations
|
| File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg United Kingdom | See Germany–United Kingdom relations
The Federal Republic of Germany established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 20 June 1951.[258]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, the European Court of Human Rights, the G7, the G20, the International Criminal Court, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Convention,[261] and the Kensington Treaty.[262] |
Oceania
| Country | Notes |
|---|---|
| File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australia | See Australia–Germany relations |
| File:Flag of Fiji.svg Fiji |
|
| File:Flag of Kiribati.svg Kiribati |
|
| File:Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg Marshall Islands |
|
| Template:Country data Micronesia |
|
| File:Flag of Nauru.svg Nauru | See Germany–Nauru relations
|
| File:Flag of New Zealand.svg New Zealand | See Germany–New Zealand relations
|
| File:Flag of Palau.svg Palau |
|
| File:Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg Papua New Guinea | See Germany–Papua New Guinea relations
|
| File:Flag of Samoa.svg Samoa |
|
| File:Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg Solomon Islands |
|
| File:Flag of Tonga.svg Tonga | See Germany–Tonga relations
|
| File:Flag of Tuvalu.svg Tuvalu |
|
| File:Flag of Vanuatu.svg Vanuatu |
|
See also
Script error: No such module "Portal".
- Anglo-German naval arms race
- Human rights in Germany
- List of diplomatic missions in Germany
- List of diplomatic missions of Germany
- Security issues in Germany
- Visa requirements for German citizens
- Germany-Israel relations
Notes
References
<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />
- ↑ Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War. London: Penguin. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-141-02532-2
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Aims of German development policy Template:Webarchive Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 10 April 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1". https://x.com/RadioTamazuj/status/1932034229119959423
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Text in League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 10, pp. 302–303.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Amin Saikal, Ravan Farhadi, Kirill Nourzhanov. Modern Afghanistan: a history of struggle and survival. I.B.Tauris, 2006. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN. Pg 64
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Tom Lansford. A bitter harvest: US foreign policy and Afghanistan. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003 Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN. Pg 2
- ↑ Armenian, German leaders discuss bilateral relations Template:Webarchive from Mediamax news agency, Yerevan, archived on US Embassy site
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Israel's foreign relations. The Israel-German special relationship Template:Webarchive, Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre (BICOM), 23 November 2005. Retrieved 18 August 2006.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "Citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Text in League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2, pp. 92–99
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Template:In lang Informacje o Polsce – informacje ogólne Template:Webarchive. Page gives Polish PWN Encyklopedia as reference.
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
- ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
Script error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".
Further reading
German diplomacy
- Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. A History of West Germany. Vol. 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963. Vol. 2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991 (1993), the standard scholarly history
- Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the 'German Problem' During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'. in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds), New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations? Ch. 5. London: Routledge, 2018. Template:ISBN.
- Brandenburg, Erich. From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870-1914 (1927) online.
- Buse, Dieter K., and Juergen C. Doerr, eds. Modern Germany: an encyclopedia of history, people and culture, 1871-1990 (2 vol. Garland, 1998).
- Clark, Claudia. Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel (2021)
- Cole, Alistair. Franco-German Relations (2000)
- Feldman, Lily Gardner. Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity (Rowman & Littlefield; 2012) 393 pages; on German relations with France, Israel, Poland, and Czechoslovakia/the Czech Republic. excerpt
- Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." International Affairs 92.1 (2016): 21-42. online
- Gaskarth, Jamie, and Kai Oppermann. "Clashing traditions: German foreign policy in a New Era." International Studies Perspectives 22.1 (2021): 84–105. online
- Geiss, Imanuel. German foreign policy, 1871–1914 (1976)
- Haftendorn, Helga. German Foreign Policy Since 1945 (2006), 441pp
- Hanrieder, Wolfram F. Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (1991)
- Heuser, Beatrice. NATO, Britain, France & the FRG: Nuclear Strategies & Forces for Europe, 1949-2000 (1997) 256pp
- Hewitson, Mark. "Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy." English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 570–606. in JSTOR
- Junker, Detlef, ed. The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 excerpt and text search vol 1; excerpt and text search vol 2
- Kefferputz, Roderick and Jeremy Stern. "The United States, Germany, and World Order: New Priorities for a Changing Alliance." Atlantic Council: Issue Brief (2021) online
- Kimmich, Christoph. German Foreign Policy 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials (2nd ed. Scholarly Resources, 1991) 264 pp.
- Leitz, Christian. Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The Road to Global War (2004)
- Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich (2012) excerpt
- Oppermann, Kai. "National role conceptions, domestic constraints and the new 'normalcy' in German foreign policy: the Eurozone crisis, Libya and beyond." German Politics; 21.4 (2012): 502–519.
- Paterson, William E. "Foreign Policy in the Grand Coalition." German politics 19.3-4 (2010): 497–514.
- Papayoanou, Paul A. "Interdependence, institutions, and the balance of power: Britain, Germany, and World War I." International Security 20.4 (1996): 42–76.
- Schwarz, Hans-Peter. Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction (2 vol 1995) excerpt and text search vol 2.
- Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902-1914." American Historical Review 29.3 (1924): 449–473. in JSTOR
- Sontag, Raymond James. Germany and England: Background of Conflict, 1848-1898 (1938)
- Spang, Christian W. and Rolf-Harald Wippich, eds. Japanese-German Relations, 1895-1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion (2006)
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (2 vol, 1970–80).
- Wright, Jonathan. Germany and the Origins of the Second World War (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) 223pp. online review
- Young, William. German Diplomatic Relations 1871-1945: The Wilhelmstrasse and the Formulation of Foreign Policy (2006); how the foreign ministry shaped policy
World/European diplomatic context
- Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction that gives context to Germany's roles
- Kaiser, David E. Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France, and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939 (Princeton UP, 2015).
- Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (1989) excerpt and text search; very wide-ranging, with much on economic power
- Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline
- Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870-1890 (2nd ed. 1950); advanced coverage of Bismarckian system
- Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902 (2 vol, 1935)
- Macmillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) cover 1890s to 1914; see esp. ch 3–5, 8,
- Mowat, R. B. A History of European Diplomacy 1815-1914 (1922), basic introduction
- Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 (1996)
- Steiner, Zara. The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933 (2007) excerpt and text search
- Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939 (2011) excerpt and text search
- Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1957) excerpt and text search, advanced coverage of all major powers
External links
- German -Bashing and the Breakup of Yugoslavia, ("The Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies, nº 16, March 1998). University of Washington: HMJ School of International Studies
- The German Economy in the New Europe
- EU Enlargement and Transatlantic Relations
- Bierling, Stephan. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Normen, Akteure, Entscheidungen. 2. Auflage. München: Oldenbourg, 2005 Template:ISBN.
- von Bredow, Wilfried. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Eine Einführung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2006 Template:ISBN.
- Permanent Mission of Germany to the United Nations
- Auswärtiges Amt
- AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies
- SWP German Institute for International and Security Affairs
Script error: No such module "Navbox". Template:Country topics Script error: No such module "Navbox".