Excubitors

Template:Short description Template:Good article Template:Template otherTemplate:Short description The Excubitors (Template:Langx or , Template:Lit., i.e. 'sentinels';Template:Efn transcribed into Greek as , ) were founded in c. Template:Trim as an imperial guard-unit by the Byzantine emperor Leo I the Thracian. The 300-strong force, originally recruited from among the warlike mountain tribe of the Isaurians, replaced the older as the main imperial bodyguards. The Excubitors remained an active military unit for the next two centuries, although, as imperial bodyguards, they did not often go on campaign. Their commander, the Count of the Excubitors (, ), soon acquired great influence. Justin I was able to use this position to rise to the throne in 518, and thereafter the Counts of the Excubitors were among the main political power-holders of their day; two more, Tiberius II Constantine and Maurice, rose to become emperors in the late 6th century.

In the later part of the 7th century the Excubitors appear to have morphed into a parade-ground formation, and they fade from the record as a corps. Individual seals of office suggest that the title of became an honorific dignity rather than an active military appointment during the early part of the 8th century. This changed c. Template:Trim, when the Emperor Constantine V reformed the corps into one of the élite - professional heavy-cavalry regiments that constituted the core of the Byzantine army of the middle-Byzantine period. Notable members of the regiment during this time include Saint Joannicius the Great (served c. Template:Trim to 792), and Emperor Michael II the Amorian, who served as regimental commander, or Domestic of the Excubitors (), before rising to the throne in 820. The Excubitors fought in several campaigns during the following centuries, and are last attested in the disastrous Battle of Dyrrhachium in 1081 that destroyed the remnants of the middle-Byzantine army.

History

Early period: Imperial bodyguard

The Excubitors were founded by Emperor Leo I (Template:Reign) in c. Template:Trim and were recruited from among the sturdy and warlike Isaurians, as part of Leo's effort to counterbalance the influence of the Aspar and the large Germanic element in the East Roman army.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Unlike the older palace regiments of the , which were under the control of the and eventually degenerated to parade-ground formations, the Excubitors long remained a crack fighting force.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

File:Tremissis-Justin I-sb0058.jpg

of Emperor Justin I, the first commander of the Excubitors to rise to the throne.

The unit was headed by the count of the Excubitors (Template:Langx; Template:Langx), who was entirely independent of all other officials and subordinated only to the emperor himself.Template:Sfn By virtue of his proximity to the emperor, the count of the Excubitors became an official of great importance in the 6th and 7th centuries. This post, which can be traced up to c. Template:Trim, was usually held by close members of the imperial family, often virtual heirs apparent.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Thus it was the support of his men that secured Justin I (Template:Reign), who held the post at the time of the death of Anastasius I (Template:Reign), his elevation to the throne.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Similarly, Justin II (Template:Reign) relied on the support of the Excubitors for his unchallenged accession; their count, Tiberius, was a close friend who had been appointed to the post through Justin's intervention. Tiberius was to be the Emperor's right-hand man throughout his reign, eventually succeeding him as Tiberius II (Template:Reign).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He too would be succeeded by his own , Maurice (Template:Reign).Template:Sfn Under Maurice, the post was held by his brother-in-law Philippicus, and under Phocas (Template:Reign) by Priscus.Template:Sfn Another powerful occupant was Valentinus, who secured it during the power struggles that accompanied the regency of Empress-dowager Martina in 641, before deposing her and her son Heraklonas and installing Constans II (Template:Reign) as emperor. Valentinus dominated the new regime, but his attempt to become emperor himself in 644 ended in his being lynched by the mob.Template:Sfn

By the late 6th century, the count of the Excubitors held the highest court ranks, of and .Template:Sfn Apart from their duties as commander of the Excubitors, holders of the office now also undertook other functions such as recruiting troops and interrogating suspected traitors.Template:Sfn The count of the Excubitors was even sent to lead campaigns.Template:Sfn The power that went with the position, and the intrigues of men like Priscus and the would-be usurper Valentinus, doomed the post to eventual decline during the latter half of the 7th century,Template:Sfn although it is likely that the post continued in existence into the 8th century, until the corps was reorganized.Template:Sfn

File:Seal of Basil the Excubitor.jpg

Lead seal of the Excubitor Basil (7th century)

The participation of the Excubitors in campaigns is well attested, such as in 598, when Emperor Maurice took them to defend the Anastasian Wall against the Avars.Template:Sfn They served with Heraclius (Template:Reign) against the Sasanian Persians, and c. Template:Trim some Excubitors appear as guards to Pope Martin I.Template:Sfn During the later 7th century, like the before them, the Excubitors degenerated to a parade-ground unit that saw no active service.Template:Sfn Indeed, it appears that during the 7th and early 8th centuries, the titles of and were awarded as court dignities, paralleling the development of similar formerly military titles such as . This is evidenced by a large number of seals naming individual during this time, in stark contrast to the periods before and after, when the Excubitors are attested as an active military unit. Furthermore, in many of these seals, individual —as well as —are shown to have conjointly held bureaucratic offices, while at least one seal is known of a certain George, who was both and a (a member of the ).Template:Sfn

Later period: Elite regiment

After being mentioned in a letter by Justinian II (Template:Reign) to Pope John V in 687,Template:Sfn the Excubitors as a corps disappear from the historical sources until they re-emerge, under a new commander, the domestic of the Excubitors (, ) and in a new capacity, as one of the imperial , which comprised the elite professional central army established by Constantine V (Template:Reign) in c. Template:Trim.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The were cavalry units,Template:Sfn armed and equipped by the imperial arms factories to a higher standard than the provincial ('thematic') forces, likely including horse armour.Template:Sfn As such the Excubitors were no longer a palace guard, but a unit actively engaged in military campaigns. At the same time, the , being loyal to the emperor's person, represented a counterbalance to the thematic armies of the provinces and constituted a powerful tool in implementing the iconoclastic policies pursued by Constantine V.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their original role as palace guardians was taken over by another, newly created , that of the .Template:Sfn

Nevertheless, the possibly first commander of the , Strategios Podopagouros, was among the leaders of a failed plot against Constantine V's life in 765, and was executed after its discovery. This initiated a purge of the new units from suspected opponents of the Emperor's policies.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn By the 780s, following years of imperial favour and military victories under Constantine V and his son Leo IV the Khazar (Template:Reign), the had become firm adherents to the iconoclast cause.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Within less than two months of Leo V's death in 780, Empress-regent Irene of Athens had to foil an attempt spearheaded by the Domestic of the Excubitors to place Constantine V's exiled second son, Nikephoros, on the throne,Template:Sfn and in 785/86 Irene forcibly disarmed them and exiled some 1,500 tagmatic soldiers due to their resistance to the restoration of the icons.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

At the same time, the were extensively employed in campaigns during this period: their participation is attested at least for Constantine V's 773 campaign against the Bulgars, and during the Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor in 782.Template:Sfn Indeed, the historian John Haldon remarks that the retention of the by Irene, despite their iconoclastic bias, is testament to their effectiveness as a field force.Template:Sfn The and the Excubitors nevertheless continued to play an active political role in the events of the following decades: in 792, they attempted to overthrow Irene's son, Constantine VI (Template:Reign), after the disastrous Battle of Marcellae against the Bulgars, and in 797, their support was crucial for Irene's overthrowing her own son and replacing him as sole ruler; and again, the two were crucial in the deposition of Irene herself in 802.Template:Sfn

File:Michael II and Theophilos solidus.jpg

of Emperor Michael II and his son, Theophilos.

The Excubitors took part in the disastrous Pliska campaign in 811, when the Byzantine army was routed by Tsar Krum of Bulgaria (Template:Reign); the Domestic of the Excubitors fell in the field along with the other senior Byzantine generals, including Emperor Nikephoros I himself (Template:Reign).Template:Sfn The most prominent domestic of the Excubitors of the period was Michael II the Amorian (Template:Reign), whose supporters overthrew Emperor Leo V the Armenian (Template:Reign) and raised him to the throne.Template:Sfn The regiment also fought at the battles of Boulgarophygon in 896 and Acheloos in 917, both heavy defeats against the Bulgarians.Template:Sfn In the expedition against the Emirate of Crete in 949, the Byzantine force included a contingent of over 700 Excubitors.Template:Sfn In 958, the Excubitors participated in the repulsion of a Magyar raid.Template:Sfn

The Excubitors took part in the failed Azaz campaign of 1030, where they were ambushed and dispersed by the Mirdasids, while their commander, the Leo Choirosphaktes, was taken captive.Template:Sfn As with most of the Byzantine army, the of the capital atrophied during the mid-11th century, and many of them disappear in the turmoils of foreign invasion and civil wars that followed the destruction of the Byzantine field army in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Excubitors are last attested in Anna Komnene's Alexiad, where they are recorded as participating at the Battle of Dyrrhachium against the Italo-Normans in 1081, under the command of Constantine Opos.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Structure

Early period

The internal structure of the regiment during its first centuries is obscure.Template:Sfn Unlike the , which comprised several sub-units garrisoned throughout Bithynia (and occasionally in Thrace) as well as Constantinople,Template:Sfn the Excubitors were a small and elite unit that served in the imperial palace itself and was intended exclusively to protect the emperor.Template:Sfn From their foundation and throughout the early period of their existence, the Excubitors numbered 300 men.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Originally recruited exclusively from Isaurians, the unit was eventually opened up to other ethnicities, but it is unclear how the new recruits were chosen.Template:Sfn Based on the retention of late antique ranks in the middle Byzantine period, the Excubitors appear to have been structured similarly to the .Template:Sfn Their arms and equipment are unknown, other than that they are recorded as carrying maces. Since they were a bodyguard unit intended to serve in the palace, they were most likely infantry.Template:Sfn

The presence of officers called in the corps has been controversial: John B. Bury and A. H. M. Jones both suggested that they were a separate, although possibly related, unit.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Based on the presence of the among the ranks of the later, middle Byzantine incarnation of the Excubitors, however, it is thought that the were the subaltern officers of the count of the Excubitors.Template:Sfn The historian Warren Treadgold speculates that they fulfilled a role similar to the regular cavalry decurions, commanding troops of 30 men each,Template:Sfn but the also appear in charge of administrative matters such as handing out pay to the soldiers,Template:Sfn as well as more sensitive tasks such as delivering letters, making arrests, and preparing expeditions.Template:Sfn

Later period

File:Seal of a Domestic of the Excubitors.png

Seal of [Mart]inos (?), domestic of the Imperial Excubitors

In its later incarnation as a , the regiment (often called collectively , or , ) was structured along the same standardized lines followed by the other , with a few variations in the titles of its officers.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Commander

The regimental commander, the domestic of the Excubitors (often also shortened to "the Excubitor", ),Template:Sfn is well attested in the various lists of offices in the 9th–10th centuries, where it is held in tandem with that of the chief () of the "suburban" (, ) members of the racing faction () of the Greens, which functioned as a militia for the defence of Constantinople, and of the regiment of the "Walls".Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The domestics were originally of strikingly low court rank (mere , 'sword-bearers'), but they gradually rose to importance: while in the Taktikon Uspensky of c. Template:Trim the domestic of the Excubitors came behind all the thematic commanders () in order of precedence, in the Klētorologion of 899, the domestic is shown as superior to the of the European themes and even to the Eparch of Constantinople. At the same time, the court dignities they held rose to the much loftier ranks of ('first sword-bearer') and even ('patrician').Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The Escorial Taktikon, written c. Template:Trim, records the existence of a "Domestic of the Excubitors of the East" (), and a "Domestic of the Excubitors of the West" (), as well as a subaltern "Domestic of the Excubitors".Template:Sfn This has led to the suggestion that, probably under Romanos II (Template:Reign), the regiment, like the senior , was split in two units, one for the West and one for the East, each headed by a respective domestic.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn However, unlike the , these designations no longer appear in any later source, and they may have been of brief existence.Template:Sfn The subaltern domestic of the Excubitors may either by a copyist error, or, according to Vera von Falkenhausen, indicate a subordinate official in charge of Excubitors stationed in the provinces; indeed such provincial detachments are attested, albeit only for the themes of Longobardia in southern Italy and of Hellas in Greece.Template:Sfn

Other officers

The fact that the unit did not partake in campaigns during the 7th century preserved it from the reforms that affected the field army during this period, so that the late antique terminology for its junior officers remained relatively intact.Template:Sfn The domestic was assisted by a (, Template:Lit., 'lieutenant') and a (, 'secretary').Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The was of relatively low-to-middle court rank (originally , 'groom' or , later ). He may have commanded provincial detachments of the regiment, and there may have been more than one at the same time, for each of these detachments.Template:Sfn

Based on a reference from the hagiography of St. Joannicius the Great (762–846), who was himself recruited into the regiment and served there until deserting it following the Battle of Marcellae,Template:Sfn in 773 the regiment itself was divided into at least eighteen , probably each commanded by a (), showing the retention of the role of the earlier as the main subaltern officers of the regiment.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Each was further divided into sub-units headed by a (, deriving from the late Roman ). The post was originally that of a standard-bearer, but after Constantine V's reform of the unit into a , the probably functioned as junior officers. The junior officers also included the (, 'standard carriers'), (, i.e. signifers) and (, from the late Roman rank of , now much reduced in prominence).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn There were also the usual messengers (, ) under a , some of whom were also termed (), possibly entrusted with police duties.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Strength

The size of the of the Excubitors and its subdivisions can not be determined with certainty; as with the other , modern scholars are of differing opinions regarding its numerical strength. Drawing on the lists of officers and accounts of Arab geographers Ibn Khordadbeh and Qudamah, historian Warren Treadgold suggested an establishment strength of c. Template:Trim men, which for the and the Excubitors rose to c. Template:Trim with the division of the regiments in the mid-10th century.Template:Sfn Other scholars, most prominently John Haldon, based on a more conservative reading of sources, have provided estimates of around 1,000 men for each .Template:Sfn For security reasons, both the and the Excubitors were scattered in garrisons in Thrace and Bithynia rather than being stationed within Constantinople, making it harder for them to be used in mounting a coup.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Known commanders of the Excubitors

Name	Tenure	Notes
Counts of the Excubitors
Justin I	515–518	Count of the Excubitors under Emperor Anastasius I, before becoming emperor. As count of the Excubitors, he took part in the suppression of the rebellion of Vitalian, leading the imperial fleet against the rebel navy.Template:Sfn
Priscus	529	A former secretary () of Justinian I, he became count of the Excubitors but fell foul of Empress Theodora and was banished to Cyzicus and later a monastery.Template:Sfn
Theodore	535–536	As count of the Excubitors, he served with Solomon in North Africa, where he played a critical role in the Battle of Mount Bourgaon. He was murdered in Easter 536 in the mutiny led by Stotzas.Template:Sfn
Marcellus	541–552	Count of the Excubitors, he is described by Procopius as an austere and incorruptible man, who took part in the discovery of the conspiracy of Artabanes. In 552, he was member of an embassy to Pope Vigilius.Template:Sfn
Marinus	561–562	Count of the Excubitors, he was charged with suppressing racing faction violence in Constantinople, and in investigating the conspiracy to assassinate Emperor Justinian in November 562.Template:Sfn
Tiberius II	565–574	He was appointed count of the Excubitors during the reign of Justinian I, and was a protégé of Justin II. In c. Template:Trim he led the campaign against the Pannonian Avars around Sirmium and Thrace. When Justin II became insane, as the most influential member of the court he was named and de facto regent.Template:Sfn
Maurice	574?–582?	A of Tiberius, he was probably appointed count of the Excubitors as the latter's successor when Tiberius became . He likely held his post in tandem with the position of (commander-in-chief of the East) against the Sasanian Empire, until he himself became in 582. By 577/78, he was also a .Template:Sfn
Philippicus	582/584–603	The husband of Maurice's sister Gordia, he was made count of the Excubitors sometime early in Maurice's reign, and held it until he retired to a monastery in 603. He also served at the same time as against the Sasanians.Template:Sfn
Priscus	603?–612	Already a distinguished general and before being appointed as count of the Excubitors, shortly after Phocas came to power. In 607 he married Domentzia, daughter of Emperor Phocas, but conspired with Heraclius for the overthrow of Phocas. He led troops in Asia Minor against the Sasanians, but was dismissed and forced to retire as a monk by Heraclius in December 612.Template:Sfn
Nicetas	612–613	A cousin of the Emperor Heraclius, he participated in the overthrow of Phocas and was named a . Named count of the Excubitors in succession to Priscus, he led Byzantine troops against the Sasanians around Antioch, before going to Egypt as governor.Template:Sfn
Valentinus	6th/7th century	and "Count of the Imperial " (), known only from his seal of office.Template:Sfn
Valentinus	641	An Armenian aristocrat, he enforced the coronation of Constans II as co-emperor alongside Heraklonas, and was given the position of count of the Excubitors. From this post, he led campaigns against the Arabs, and may have been responsible for the overthrow of Heraklonas and his mother, Empress-regent Martina. Possibly identical to the previous.Template:Sfn
Stephen	7th century	"Count of the Divine " (), known only from his seal of office.Template:Sfn
Domestics of the Excubitors
Sisinios	early 8th century	, , and domestic of the Excubitors, grandfather of Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople.Template:Sfn
Strategios Podopagouros	765	A (in one text variant ) and domestic of the Excubitors ( [sic]), executed by Constantine V during his purge of iconophiles in 765.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Constantine	780	A of the and domestic of the Excubitors ( [sic]), he participated in a conspiracy against Empress-regent Irene of Athens in favor of the Nikephoros, and finally was arrested and imprisoned in a monastery.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Niketas	750/800	Imperial and domestic of the Excubitors, known only from his seal of office.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Arsaber	750/850	Imperial and "Domestic of the " (), known only from his seal of office.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Anonymous	811	"Domestic of the " ( [sic]), he was killed at the Battle of Pliska.Template:Sfn
Michael II	813–?	The future emperor Michael II was appointed to the post of by Leo V in 813, and held it for a number of years.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Anonymous	829/842	and simultaneously of the racing faction of the Greens, under Emperor Theophilos.Template:Sfn
Constantine	c. Template:Trim	An Armenian, he commanded the in 842.Template:Sfn
Leo	869	and domestic of the Excubitors, he is recorded among the attendants at the 869 Church council in Constantinople.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Ashot	896	An Armenian nobleman, he was regimental commander () and fell at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896.Template:Sfn
Paul	9th century	Imperial and domestic of the Excubitors, known only from his seal of office.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Sergios	9th century	, imperial and domestic of the Excubitors, known only from his seal of office.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Symbatios	850/900	, imperial and domestic of the Excubitors, known only from his seal of office. Possibly to be identified with Symbatios the Armenian (Template:Fl.).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Theophilos	9th century	Imperial and domestic of the Excubitors, known only from his seal of office.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Aetios	late 9th/early 10th century	Imperial and domestic of the Excubitors, known only from his seal of office. Potentially identical with a namesake domestic of the Scholae, or a droungarios of the Vigla of the same name.Template:Sfn
John Grapson	917	He commanded the regiment and was killed at the Battle of Acheloos in 917. His father Maroules had been Domestic of the of the . John Skylitzes describes him as a valiant and distinguished warrior.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Anonymous	949	Referred to simply as "the ", he participated with over 700 men and his in the failed expedition to Crete in 949.Template:Sfn
Pothos Argyros	c. Template:Trim	He is mentioned as being a and domestic of the Excubitors when he defeated a Magyar raid in the Balkans. Identified by some with a namesake domestic of the c. Template:Trim.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Peter	990	Referred to as an , he was murdered in southern Italy.Template:Sfn
Makrotheodoros	997	Referred to as an , he was murdered at Oria in southern Italy.Template:Sfn
Theodore	998	Mentioned in a deed from southern Italy, possibly identical with the previous.Template:Sfn
John (?)	950/1050	Imperial , (uncertain reading) and domestic of the Excubitors of the West, known only from his seal of office.Template:Sfn
Nikolitzes Kekaumenos	turn of 10th/11th century	The grandfather of the military writer Kekaumenos, who records him as domestic of the Excubitors of Hellas.Template:Sfn
Leo Patianos	1017	An who was killed during the revolt of Melus of Bari in southern Italy.Template:Sfn
Leo Choirosphaktes	1030	Commanded the Excubitors during Romanos III's failed campaign into northern Syria.Template:Sfn
Constantine Opos	1081	Commanded the Excubitors during the Battle of Dyrrhachium against the Italo-Normans.Template:Sfn
Martinos (possibly also Marianos or Adrianos)	9th/11th century	, imperial and "Domestic of the Imperial Excubitors" (), known only from his seal of office.Template:Sfn

Sources

• Template:The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century
• Template:Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204
• Template:ODB
• Template:Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit
• Template:PLRE
• Template:PLRE
• Template:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
• Template:Cambridge Ancient History
• Template:The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025
• Template:John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057