Demographic history of the Vilnius region

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates

File:Lithuanian language in the 16th century.png
Within the 16th-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Vilnius region was ethnically Lithuanian

The city of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, and its surrounding region have a long history. The Vilnius Region has been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the Lithuanian state's founding in the late Middle Ages to its destruction in 1795, i.e. five centuries. From then, the region was occupied by the Russian Empire until 1915, when the German Empire invaded it. After 1918 and throughout the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, Vilnius was disputed between the Republic of Lithuania and the Second Polish Republic. After the city was seized by the Republic of Central Lithuania with Żeligowski's Mutiny, the city was part of Poland throughout the Interwar period. Regardless, Lithuania claimed Vilnius as its capital. During World War II, the city changed hands many times, and the German occupation resulting in the destruction of Jews in Lithuania. From 1945 to 1990, Vilnius was the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic's capital. From the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Vilnius has been part of Lithuania.

The population has been categorised by linguistic and sometimes also religious indicators. At the end of the 19th century the main languages spoken were Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian, Yiddish and Russian.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". Both Catholic and Orthodox Christianity were represented, while a large proportion of the city's inhabitants were Jews.Script error: No such module "Unsubst". The "Lithuanian" element was seen as declining, while the "Slavic" element was increasing.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Census data are available from 1897 onward, although the territorial boundaries and ethnic categorisation have been inconsistent. The Jewish population decreased greatly because of the Holocaust of 1941–44, and subsequently, many Poles were removedScript error: No such module "Unsubst". from the city, but less so from the surrounding countryside. Consequently, recent Census figures show a predominance of Lithuanians in the city of Vilnius, but of Poles in the Vilnius district outside the city.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

Ethnic and national background

Already in the 1st century, Lithuanian tribes inhabited Lithuania proper.Template:Sfn Slavicisation of Lithuanians in eastern and southeastern Lithuania began in the 16th century.Template:Sfn It is recorded that in 1554, Lithuanian, Polish and Church Slavonic were spoken in Vilnius.Template:Sfn The Statutes of Lithuania, officially enforced from 1588 until 1840, forbid Polish nobility to buy estates in Lithuania, hence a mass migration of Poles into the Vilnius region was impossible.Template:Sfn The Lithuanian nobility and Bourgeoisie was gradually Polonized over the 17th and 18th centuries.Template:Sfn

Until the end of the 19th century, Peasants in eastern Lithuania proper were Lithuanians.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn This is attested by their un-Polonized surnames, and most Lithuanians in eastern Lithuania proper were Slavicized by schools and churches in the last quarter of the 19th century.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn


Polonization resulted in the mixed language spoken in the Vilnius region by Tutejszy, where it was known as "mowa prosta".Template:Sfn It is not recognized as a dialect of Polish and borrows heavily from the Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian languages.Template:Sfn According to Polish professor Jan Otrębski's article published in 1931, the Polish dialect in the Vilnius Region and in the northeastern areas in general are very interesting variant of Polishness as this dialect developed in a foreign territory which was mostly inhabited by the Lithuanians who were Belarusized (mostly) or Polonized, and to prove this Otrębski provided examples of Lithuanianisms in the Tutejszy language.[1][2] In 2015, Polish linguist Template:Ill attested that many of the region's inhabitants who declare Polish nationality speak a Belarusian dialect which they call mowa prosta ('simple speech').[3]

A woodcut of people praying
Pagan Lithuanians worshiping a grass snake, oak, and fire. From Olaus Magnus' A Description of the Northern Peoples, book 3, 1555

According to recent ethnographic research by Yury Vnukovich (2023), this situation represents an "ethnic anomaly": while local Lithuanians are identified primarily by their language, for the local Slavic-speaking population, their everyday language ("prostaya mova") is not a marker of ethnicity. Instead, residents identify as Poles based on other factors, primarily their Catholic faith (locally perceived as the "Polish faith") and their origin from the region. Vnukovich notes that "prostaya mova" is often stigmatized by its speakers as "uneducated," whereas standard Polish holds high prestige as a symbol of their identity, even if they do not speak it fluently in daily life.[4]

Ancient period

In the eldership of Vilkpėdė, remnants of a Magdalenian settlement were found which date to c. Template:TrimScript error: No such module "Check for unknown parameters".. Around 1000 BC, the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia was densely inhabited by the Brushed Pottery culture, which had a half-hectare fortified settlement on Gediminas' Hill.[5] Tribes of this culture inhabited present-day Lithuania east of the Šventoji River and in western Belarus. The descendants of this culture were a Baltic tribe, the Aukštaitians (Template:Langx).[5] According to historian Antanas Čaplinskas, who researched the surnames of Vilnius residents, the city's oldest surviving surnames are Lithuanian.[5] Pagan Lithuanians primarily lived at the northern foot of Gediminas' Hill and in the Crooked Castle.[6] Kairėnai, Pūčkoriai and Naujoji Vilnia had large settlements during the first millennium AD.[7] The most densely populated area was the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia, which had fortified homesteads.[7]

Medieval period

Vilnius was part of the Kingdom of Lithuania; King Mindaugas did not permanently live there, however, despite building Lithuania's first Catholic church for his coronation.[8][7] The city began to develop in the late 13th century, during the reign of Grand Dukes Butvydas and Vytenis.[9]

File:Jan Matejko - Zygmunt August z Barbarą.jpg
Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus (Gediminas' male-line offspring)[10] with his wife, the Grand Duchess Barbara Radziwiłł, in Vilnius. The city prospered during his reign.

Vilnius' growth is attributed to Grand Duke Gediminas, who invited knights, merchants, doctors, craftspeople and others to come to the duchy to practice their trades and religion without restriction during the 14th century.[7] However, the city's growth was limited by Teutonic Order attacks and the 1389–1392 Lithuanian Civil War.[7] Invited by Grand Duke Gediminas, merchants and craftsmen began moving to Vilnius from the cities of the German Hanseatic League, France, Italy and Spain; Lithuanian surnames were replaced with German, Polish, and Russian ones.[5] In the late 14th century, during the reign of Grand Duke Algirdas, Vilnius had a Ruthenian quarter (Template:Langx) in present-day Latako and Rusų Streets. Trade between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Ruthenian principalities was well-developed, with Ruthenian merchants and Ruthenian nobility living in the quarter.[5][6][11] Vilnius' multiculturalism was increased by Grand Duke Vytautas the Great, who introduced Litvaks, Tatars and Crimean Karaites.[12] After several centuries, the number of local residents in Vilnius was smaller than the number of newcomers.[5] However, according to an analysis of the 1572 tax registers, Lithuania had 850,000 residents; 680,000 were Lithuanians.[13]

Lithuanian Golden Age

It became a multicultural city, with 14th-century sources noting that it consisted of a Great (Lithuanian) city and a Ruthenian one. By the 16th century, German merchants, artisans, Jews and Tatars had also settled in Vilnius. During the 16th– and 17th-century Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the city's Polish-speaking population began to grow; by the middle of the 17th century, most writing was in Polish.[7] During the Lithuanian Golden Age, Vilnius was a major city in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and home to the Lithuanian nobility;[14][15] however, it was severely damaged by a 1610 fire.

Russian and Swedish occupations

After the 1655 Battle of Vilnius the city was under Russian control until 1661. During the Great Northern War, the Swedish Empire controlled Vilnius from 1702 to 1709. The occupation ended with the Great Northern War plague outbreak, and the city took over 50 years to recover.[7] According to historian Vytautas Merkys, the city lost much of its old population under Swedish and Russian domination during the 17th and 18th centuries; although they were replaced by newcomers, Lithuanians continued to live in Vilnius.[5]

A printed document
Manifesto of the 1794 Vilnius uprising, encouraging Lithuanians to defend the city against Russia. Its population fell precipitously.

According to the first Commonwealth census in 1790, the Vilnius Voivodeship had a population of 718,571 and Vilnius County had 105,896 residents; after the Second Partition, the Grand Duchy had a population of 1,333,493.[13] The city's population fell to 17,500 in 1796 due to the 1794 uprising, the last attempt to save it from Russian control.[7][16] Vilnius was incorporated into the Russian Empire, and was its third-largest city at the beginning of the 19th century.[7] The city was again affected by the 1830 November Uprising and the January Uprising in 1863.[7]

According to the 1897 Russian census, Vilnius had a population of 154,532 residents and the Vilna Governorate had 1,561,713. Vilnius' population became ethnically less Lithuanian.[5] In the Russian census of 1897, 2.1 percent identified as Lithuanian speakers; speakers of Polish (30.8% percent) and Yiddish (40 percent) were the city's largest linguistic groups.[17] According to parish censuses in 1857–1858, the Lithuanian population was between 23.6 and 50 percent in the Vilna Governorate.[18] In 1863, ethnographer Roderich von Erckert identified the governorate's largest ethnic group as Lithuanians (45.04 percent).[19] Among the szlachta (nobility) in Vilnius in the 1897 census were 5,301 (46 percent) local nobles and 6,403 (54 percent) newcomers; of the newcomers, 24.1 percent were from the Vilna Governorate and the remainder from Grodno, Minsk, Vitebsk and Kovno Governorates, Vistula Land and other regions.[20]

After the partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Most of the former lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were annexed by the Russian Empire during the Partitions in the late 18th century.

While initially, these former lands had certain local autonomy, with local nobility holding the same offices as before the Partitions, after several unsuccessful rebellions in 1830–31 and 1863–64 against the Russian Empire, the Russian authorities engaged in intense Russification of the regions' inhabitants.

Following the failed November uprising all traces of former Polish–Lithuanian statehood (like the Third Statute of Lithuania and Congress Poland) were replaced with Russian counterparts, ranging from the currency and units of measurement to offices of local administration. The failed January Uprising of 1863–64 further aggravated the situation, as the Russian authorities decided to pursue the policies of forcibly imposed Russification. The discrimination of local inhabitants included restrictions and bans on usage of Lithuanian (see Lithuanian press ban), Polish, Belarusian and Ukrainian (see Valuev circular) languages.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn This however did not stop the Polonization effort undertaken by the Polish patriotic leadership of the Vilna educational district even within the Russian Empire.[21][22]

Despite that, the pre-19th-century cultural and ethnic pattern of the area was largely preserved. In the process of the pre-19th-century voluntary[23] Polonization, much of the Lithuanian nobility adopted Polish language and culture. This was also true to the representatives of the then-nascent bourgeoisie class and the Catholic and Uniate clergy. At the same time, the lower strata of the society (notably the peasants) formed a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural mixture of Lithuanians, Poles, Jews, Tatars and Ruthenians, as well as a small yet notable population of immigrants from all parts of Europe, from Italy to Scotland and from the Low Countries to Germany.

During the rule of the Russian tsars, Polish remained the lingua franca as it had been in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. By the middle of the 17th century, most Lithuanian upper nobility was Polonized. Over time, the nobility of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth unified politically and started to consider themselves to be citizens of one common state. The leader of interwar Poland, the Lithuanian-born Józef Piłsudski, was an example of this phenomenon.[24]

Statistics

Following is a list of various estimates, statistics and censuses that have been taken in the city of Vilnius and its region since the 19th century. The list is incomplete. Data are at times fragmentary.

Plater's statistics for the Vilnius Governorate in 1825

File:Map with an area (marked in greenish-yellow) where Lithuanian language was dominant in 1827 (from Atlas statystyczny Polski i krajow okolicznych by Stanisław Plater).jpg
Map with an area (marked in greenish-yellow) where Lithuanian language was dominant in 1827
File:Map of Vilno Governorate, 1835.gif
Map of the Vilnius Governorate according to its pre-1843

Count Stanisław Plater was the first one to publish approximate statistics on the ethnic makeup of the Vilnius governorate, which included the Vilnius region as well as many other parts of Lithuania, in 1825.Template:Sfn His work's purpose was to show the area's indicative ethnic composition.Template:Sfn In the case of the Vilnius Governorate, he concluded that it was majority Lithuanian.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Stanisław Plater's statistics in 1825Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Language People Percentage

of total

Lithuanian 780,000 65%
Yiddish 180,000 15%
Polish 100,000 8,3%
Russians 80,000 6,7%
Ruthenians 50,000 4,2%
Tatars 10,000 0,8%
Total 1,200,000 100%

Due to the lack of systematic primary data on nationalities, Plater resorted to comparing the revision censuses and religious distribution statistics to provide the general statistics on the population's ethnic distribution.Template:Sfn He referred to nobles and townspeople, with the exception of soldiers and Jews, as Poles, whereas he separated the peasants into Lithuanians, Ruthenians, or Russians (which refers to the Old Believers).Template:Sfn Overall, the total number of Catholics in the Vilnius Governorate was 930,000, i.e. ¾ of the population.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Plater's ethnic and social classification of the population also reflected the contemporary thought among the elite classes, where in addition to a class difference, an ethnic dividing line was also drawn compared to the lower classes.Template:Sfn Thus, Plater categorically renamed the Lithuanians of the traditional political Lithuanian nation as Poles, whereas the lower classes in his view were termed as Lithuanians.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn A similar attitude could be found elsewhere in Europe, for example, the Hungarian nobility called itself as Natio Hungarica, in contrast to the commoners they called Magyars.Template:Sfn

In 1856, a clear example of the ethno-social alienation between a Polish-speaking Lithuanian noble and a Lithuanian-speaking peasant was documented when the poet and writer Władysław Syrokomla, who traditionally considered himself a Lithuanian, traveled through the Dūkštos parish.Template:Sfn Somewhere between the Geišiškės and Europa estates, Syrokomla spoke to a villager in Polish, but the latter replied in Lithuanian that he did not understand him, upon which Syrokomla disappointedly exclaimed that: "A Lithuanian in a Lithuanian land could not speak to a Lithuanian".Template:Sfn

Lebedkin's statistic of 1862

The first attempt at a statistical study of the ethnic structure of the Vilnius region was undertaken by Mikhail Lebedkin, who based his work on parish Catholic and Orthodox data. He published his findings in 1861 in the article On the Ethnic Composition of the Population of the Western Region of the Russian Empire in the Saint Petersburg–published scientific geographical journal Template:Interlanguage link.Template:Sfn The largest percentage of Poles were in districts of Dysna (43.4%), Vilnius (34.5%) and Vileyka (22.1%).Template:Sfn

Ethnic Composition of the Vilnius Governorate c. 1861 (according to Mikhail Lebedkin)Template:Sfn
Ethnicity Number Percentage
Lithuanians 418,880 49.98%
Poles 154,386 18.42%
Belarusians 146,432 17.42%
Ukrainians 701 0.08%
Great Russians 14,950 1.79%
Krivichs 23,016 2.75%
Jews 76,802 9.16%
Germans 902 0.11%
Tatars 2,416 0.29%
Total 838,485 100%

Lebedkin believed that in earlier times only Lithuanians and Slavs lived in the Vilnius Governorate, and therefore, he considered the Lithuanians to be the governorate's indigenous population.Template:Sfn He classified the Poles as part of the "Slavo-Russian" group. Lebedkin's data also included information on the number of Orthodox and Catholic believers, classifying all Poles, as well as portions of Lithuanians and Belarusians, as Catholics.Template:Sfn

In 1862 a slightly revised version of the article was published in the Kyiv-based journal Template:Interlanguage link, annotated by the editors with anti-Polish comments (Poles referred to as "insurgents").Template:Sfn

Russian census of 1897

In 1897, the first Russian Empire Census was held. The territory covered by the tables included parts of today's Belarus, that is, the Hrodna, Vitebsk and Minsk voblasts. Its results are currently criticised concerning ethnic composition because ethnicity was defined by the language spoken. In many cases, the reported language of choice was defined by general background (education, occupation) rather than ethnicity. Some results are also thought of as skewed since Pidgin speakers were assigned to nationalities arbitrarily. Moreover, the Russian military garrisons were counted in as permanent inhabitants of the area. Some historians point out the fact that the Russification policies and persecution of ethnic minorities in Russia were added to the notion to subscribe Belarusians, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Poles to the category of Russians.[26][27][28]

Russian Population Figures for the 1897 Census:

Template:Diagonal split header City of Vilna[29] Vilensky Uyezd[30]

(no city)

Troksky Uyezd[31] Vilna Governorate[32]
Belarusian 6 514 4.2% 87 382 41.85% 32 015 15.86% 891 903 56.1%
German 2 170 1.4% 674 0.32% 457 0.22% 3 873 0.2%
Lithuanian 3 131 2.1% 72 899 34.92% 118 153 59.01% 279 720 17.6%
Polish 47 795 30.9% 25 293 12.11% 22 884 10.99% 130 054 8.2%
Russian 30 967 20.0% 6 939 3.32% 9 314 4.22% 78 623 4.9%
Tatar 722 0.5% 49 0.02% 799 0.19% 1 969 0.1%
Ukrainian 517 0.3% 40 0.02% 154 0.08% 919 0.1%
Yiddish 61 847 40.0% 15 377 7.37% 19 398 9.32% 202 374 12.7%
Other 682 0.4% 89 0.06% 155 0.10% 1 119 0.1%
Total 154 532 100% 208 781 100% 203 401 100% 1 591 207 100%

1916 German census

During World War I, all of modern-day Lithuania and Poland was occupied by the German Army. On 9 March 1916, the German military authorities organized a census to determine the ethnic composition of their newly conquered territories.Template:Sfn Many Belarusian historians note that the Belarusian minority is not noted among the inhabitants of the city.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

German censuses of Vilnius 1915-1917
Nationality 1 Nov 1915 9-11 Mar 1916 14 Dec - 10 Jan 1917
Poles — 70 629 50,15% 74 466 53,65%
Jews — 61 265 43,50% 57 516 41,44%
Belarusians — 1 917 1,36% 611 0,44%
Lithuanians — 3 699 2,63% 2 909 2,10%
Russians — 2 080 1,48% 2 212 1,59%
Germans — 1 000 0,71% 880 0,63%
Other — 300 0,21% 193 0,14%
Overall 142 063 140 840 138 787

The census was organised by Oberbürgermeister Eldor Pohl. Representatives of local population were included in the commission. Poles were represented by Jan Boguszewski, Feliks Zawadzki and Władysław Zawadzki, Jews by Nachman Rachmilewicz, Simon Rosenbaum and Zemach Shabad, Lithuanians by Antanas Smetona, Aleksandras Stulginskis and Augustinas Janulaitis. Belarusians did not have any representation.Template:Sfn Each member of the commission was responsible for the census in one of the nine parts into which the city was divided, and was accompanied by two representatives of other nationalities. As a result each part of the city was entrusted to commission consisted of one Pole, Jew and Lithuanian.Template:Sfn Each commission had an ethnically mixed team of clerks at their disposal. Overall 425 of them were engaged in carrying out the census; 200 of them were Jews, 150 Poles, 50 Lithuanians and 25 Belarusians.Template:Sfn Many Lithuanians at the time pointed to the fact, that many of the clerks employed in carrying out the census were Polish citizen of Germany, mainly from Poznań, so the results of the census were unreliable.Template:Sfn

File:OberOst.jpg
Ober Ost, 1916

Census itself was carried out in days 9–11 March, for 5 more days people were able to correct their declarations and make complaints.Template:Sfn The main complain was that many of the clerks, mainly Jewish ones, did not know any other language other than Yidish or Russian, often also didn't know latin script, which in effect let to many mistakes, also many people simply refused to answer the questions they didn't understand.Template:Sfn There were also instances when for political reasons people were registered as belonging to different nationality than they declared.Template:Sfn Overall according to census city was inhabited by 140 480 people, 76 196 of them were Roman Catholics (54,10%), 70 692 were Polish (50,15%). The second group were Jews, 61 265 declared such nationality (43,5%) and 61 233 declared Judaism as their religion (43,47%).Template:Sfn The population of the city decreased from 205 300 in 1909 to just 140 800 registered in the new census. Almost all of Russians left the city with the army, their percentage shrank from 20% in 1909 to just 1,46% now.Template:Sfn

In comparison with the first Germans census (carried out in November 1915, wasn't asking about nationality), the number of inhabitants decreased by 1,223 from 142,063.Template:Sfn The most striking result was the difference in the number of inhabitants and the number of people registered for food ration stamps. According to responsible office in March 1916 there was 170 836 people in the city eligible to receive food rations, which gave the difference of about 18%.[33] German authorities alarmed by the results reformed the rationing system and in October the number of stamps was reduced so the number of registered persons decreased to 142 218.Template:Sfn Given people were rather leaving Vilnius — refugees were going back to their homes, people were trying to find better life conditions in the countryside — the numbers were still most likely inflated.Template:Sfn In a result Germans decided to carry out additional census.

Every inhabitant of Vilnius was ordered to appear in the right office with a passport and a ration card. In front of ethnically mixed commission he needed to declare his and his family nationality and religion, and also declare the number of people in the household. After that he was given a new ration card where such information was included. Results were even more favourable for Poles, their number increased to 74,466 (53.65%), while the overall number of people in the city decreased to 138,787.Template:Sfn

Template:Diagonal split header City of Wilna[34] Wilna countyTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

(no city)

Occupied Lithuania/
Ober OstATemplate:Sfn[35]
Belarusians 1 917 1.4% 559 0.9% 60 789 6.4%
Lithuanians 3 699 2.6% 2 713 4.3% 175 932 18.5%
Poles 70 629 50.2% 56 632 89.8% 552 401 58.0%
Russians 2 030 1.4% 290 0.5% 12 121 1.2%
Jews 61 265 43.5% 2 711 4.3% 139 716 14.7%
Other 1 300 1.0% – – – –
Total 140 840 100% 63 076 100% 950 899 100%

AData collected from the following districts (Kreise): Suwałki, Augustów, Sejny, Grodno, Grodno-city, Template:Interlanguage link, Lida, Radun, Vasilishki, Vilnius-city, Vilnius, Širvintos, Pabradė, Merkinė, Molėtai, Kaišiadorys, and Švenčionėliai.Template:Sfn[35]

A similar census was organized for all of the territories of German-occupied Lithuania, and the northern border of the territory was more or less correspondent to that of present-day Lithuania; however, its southern border ended near Brest-Litovsk, and included the city of Białystok.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

1919 Polish census

The Polish census of 1919 found the following ethnic structure of what it called Wilno District (ten counties and two cities):[36]

County Population Poles Belarusians Lithuanians Jews Russians "Locals" Tatars Latvians Not reported
Wilno City 128,954 72,416 1,781 2,920 46,559 5,262 0 16 0 0
Wilno County 184,218 160,762 626 13,864 6,665 2,110 0 45 0 146
Brasław 82,513 43,335 12,622 12,367 3,254 8,348 0 27 1,398 1,162
Dzisna 193,263 74,612 46,381 1,885 5,280 65,078 0 27 0 0
Wilejka 213,424 64,549 123,332 122 9,453 11,173 2 157 0 4,636
Święciany 139,692 61,854 18,727 38,529 6,524 5,850 2,888 133 0 5,187
Oszmiana 189,390 129,165 11,195 54 10,639 1,037 33,300 173 0 3,827
Nowogródek 95,907 13,833 72,398 1 6,974 1,470 0 302 0 929
Troki 92,831 49,947 242 36,748 3,805 903 899 273 0 14
Lida 186,060 141,479 27,804 4,203 6,329 2,610 0 25 0 3,610
Grodno City 28,165 9,255 2,123 23 16,587 166 0 1 0 10
Grodno County 99,087 53,549 33,160 1,546 10,534 161 0 137 0 0
Total 1,633,504 874,756 350,391 112,262 132,603 104,168 37,089 1,316 1,398 19,521

1921–1923 Polish census

The Peace of Riga, which ended the Polish–Soviet War, determined Poland's eastern border. In 1921, the first Polish census was held in territories under Polish control. However, Central Lithuania, seized in 1920 by General Lucjan Żeligowski's forces after a staged mutiny, was outside of de jure Poland. Poland annexed the short-lived state on 22 March 1922.

As a result, the Polish census of 20 September 1921 covered only parts of the future Wilno Voivodeship area, that is the communes of Breslauja, Template:Ill, Dysna and Vileika.[37] The remaining part of the territory of Central Lithuania (that is the communes of Vilnius, Ašmena, Švenčionys and Trakai) was covered by the additional census organised there in 1923. The tables on the right give the combined numbers for Wilno Voivodeship's area (Administrative Area of Wilno), taken during both the 1921 and 1923 censuses. It is known that Lithuanians were forced to declare their nationality as Polish.[38]

Source: 1921–1923 Polish census[39]

Template:Diagonal split header City of Wilno 1923[34] Administrative Area of Wilno
Belarusians 3 907 2.3% – 25.7%
Lithuanians 1 445 0.9% – –
Poles 100 830 60.2% – 57.9%
Russians 4 669 2.8% – –
Jews 56 168 33.5% – 8.1%
Other 435 0.26% – 8.3%
Total 167 454 100% – 100%

Polish census of 1931

File:Podzial wojewodztwa wilenskiego 1937.png
Wilno voivodeship

The 1931 Polish census was the first Polish census to measure the population of the whole Wilno and Wilno Voivodeship at once. It was organised on 9 December 1931 by the Main Statistical Office of Poland. However, in 1931 the question of nationality was replaced by two separate questions of religion worshipped and the language spoken at home.[40] Because of that, it is sometimes argued that the "language question" was introduced to diminish the number of Jews, some of whom spoke Polish rather than Yiddish or Hebrew.[40] The table on the right shows the census findings on language. Wilno voivodeship did not include Druskininkai area and included just a small part of Varėna area where the majority of inhabitants were Lithuanians. Even then, some Lithuanians were recorded as belonging to the Polish nationality.[38] The voivodeship, however, included Brelauja, Dysna, Molodečno, Ašmena, Pastovys and Vileika counties which now belong to Belarus.

In stark contrast to the Polish interwar censuses, the Vilnius region was the site of 30 Lithuanian Kindergartens, 350 Lithuanian Primary schools, 2 Lithuanian gymnasiums and a Lithuanian teacher's seminary, all of which indicate that there were far more Lithuanians in the Vilnius region than the censuses accounted for.Template:Sfn

File:Kresy Pn.png
Linguistic (mother tongue) and religious structure of Northern Kresy (today parts of Belarus and Lithuania) according to the Polish census of 1931
Polish Second General Population Census of 9 December 1931.[41]
Template:Diagonal split header City of Wilno Wilno-Troki county

(no city)

Wilno and the

Wilno-Troki county

Wilno

voivodeship

Belarusian 1 700 0.9% 5 549 2.6% 7 286 1.8% 289 675 22.7%
German 561 0.3% 171 0.1% 732 0.2% 1 357 0.1%
Lithuanian 1 579 0.8% 16 934 7.9% 18 513 4.5% 66 838 5.2%
Polish 128 628 65.9% 180 546 84.2% 309 174 75.5% 761 723 59.7%
Russian 7 372 3.8% 3 714 1.7% 11 086 2.7% 43 353 3.4%
Yiddish and Hebrew 54 596 28.0% 6 508 3.0% 61 104 14.9% 108 828 8.5%
Other 598 0.3% 1 050 0.5% 1 648 0.4% 4 165 0.3%
Total 195 071 100% 214 472 100% 409 543 100% 1 275 939 100%

Lithuanian census of 1939

Lithuanians troops who entered Vilnius in 1939 had to resort to French and German to communicate with the city's inhabitants. According to the official Lithuanian data from 1939, Lithuanians made up 6% of Vilnius population.[42] A Lithuanian sanitary platoon didn't find any Lithuanian-speaking villages despite traveling for two weeks in the surrounding countryside.[43] In December 1939, shortly after the return of Lithuanian control to what it claimed was its capital city, the Lithuanian authorities organized a new census in the area. However, the census is often criticized as skewed, intending to prove Lithuania's historical and moral rights to the disputed area rather than determine the factual composition.[44] Lithuanian figures from that period are criticized as significantly inflating the number of Lithuanians.[45] People receiving Lithuanian citizenship were pressured to declare their nationality as being Lithuanian rather than Polish.[43]

German-Lithuanian census of 1942

File:Reichskommissariat Ostland Administrative.png
Administrative division of Reichskommissariat Ostland. The city of Vilnius (Wilna-Stadt) and the region of Vilnius (Wilna-Land) are separate divisions

After the outbreak of the German-Soviet War in 1941, the area of eastern Lithuania was quickly seized by the Wehrmacht. On 27 May 1942 a new census was organised by the German authorities and the local Lithuanian collaborators.Template:Sfn The details of the methodology used are unknownTemplate:Explain and the results of the census are commonly believedScript error: No such module "Unsubst". to be an outcome of the racial theories and beliefs of those who organised the census rather than the actual ethnic and national composition of the area.Template:Sfn Among the most notable features is a complete lack of data on the Jewish inhabitants of the area (see Ponary massacre for explanation) and a much lowered number of Poles, as compared to all the earlier censuses.[46][47] However, Wilna-Gebiet did not include Breslauja, Dysna, Maladečina, Pastovys and Vileika counties but included Template:Interlanguage link district. That explains the decline in the number of Belarusians in Wilna-Gebiet.

Population estimated by the Germans on 1 January 1941Template:Sfn
Template:Diagonal split header City of Wilna Wilna county Wilna city

and county

Belarusians 5 348 2.55% 9 735 6.36% 15 083 4.16%
Germans 524 0.25% 168 0.11% 692 0.19%
Lithuanians 51 111 24.37% 66 048 43.15% 117 159 32.29%
Poles 87 855 41.89% 71 436 46.67% 159 291 43.91%
Russians 4 090 1.95% 1 684 1.10% 5 774 1.59%
Jews 58 263 27.78% 3 505 2.29% 61 768 17.03%
Other 2 538 1.21% 490 0.32% 3 028 0.83%
Total 209 729 100% 153 066 100% 362 795 100%

Einsatzgruppen population report on 1 July 1941 [45]

Nationality City of Vilna
Lithuanians 30%
Jews 40%
Poles, Belarusians, Russians 30%
Nationality census of Lithuania of 27 May 1942Template:Sfn
Template:Diagonal split header City of Wilna Wilna county

(no city)

Wilna city

and county

Wilna-Land

and city

Belarusians 3 029 2.11% 5 998 4.00% 9 027 3.07% 80 853 10.87%
Germans 476 0.33% 52 0.03% 528 0.18% 771 0.10%
Lithuanians 29 480 20.54% 73 752 49.13% 103 232 35.17% 310 449 41.75%
Poles 103 203 71.92% 67 054 44.67% 170 257 57.99% 324 750 43.67%
Russians 6 012 1.95% 2 713 1.81% 8 725 2.97% 23 222 3.12%
Jews – – – – – – – –
Latvians 78 0.05% 19 0.01% 97 0.03% 182 0.02%
Other 1 220 0.37% 515 0.20% 1 735 0.59% 3 452 0.46%
Total 143 498 100% 150 105 100% 293 601 100% 743 582 100%

Soviet data from 1944 to 1945

Vilnius' registered population was about 107,000. People who moved to the city during the German occupation, military personnel, and temporary residents were not included in the population count. According to the data from the beginning of 1945, the total population of Vilnius, Švenčionys and Trakai districts amounted to 325,000 people, half of them Poles.[48] About 90% of the Vilnius Jewish community had perished in the Holocaust. All Vilnius Poles were required to register for resettlement, and about 80% of them were relocated to Poland.[49]

Soviet census of late 1944-early 1945:A[50]

Template:Diagonal split header City of Vilnius Vilnius district Trakai district Švenčionys district
Belarusians 2 062 1.9% 800 – – – – –
Lithuanians 7 958 7.5% 7 500 – ~70 000 – 69 288 –
Poles 84 990 79.8% 105 000 – ~40 000 – 19 108 –
Russians 8 867 8.3% 2 600 – ~3 500 – 2 542 –
Ukrainians ~500[48] – – – – – – –
Jews ~1 500[48] – – – – – – –
Total 106 497 100% 115 900 100% ~114 000 100% 93 631 100%

AIn the Trakai and Švenčionys districts, a certain number of Belarusians was included into the categories of Russians and Poles.[50]

Soviet census of 1959

During the 1944-1946 period, about 50% of the registered Poles in Lithuania were transferred to Poland. Dovile Budryte estimates that about 150,000 people left the country.[51] During 1955–1959 period, another 46,600 Poles left Lithuania. However, Lithuanian historians estimate that about 10% of people who left for Poland were ethnic LithuaniansScript error: No such module "Unsubst".. While the removalScript error: No such module "Unsubst". of Poles from Vilnius constituted a priorityScript error: No such module "Unsubst". for the Lithuanian communist authorities, the depolonization of the countryside was limited due to the concerns of depopulation and agricultural labour force deficit. The population transfers and migration processes resulted in the formation of territorial ethnic segregation, with Lithuanians and Russians prevailing in Vilnius and Poles predominating in the city's surroundings.[52][53]

These are the results of the migration to Poland and the growth of the city due to industrial development and the Soviet Union policy.

1959 Soviet census:

Template:Diagonal split header City of Vilnius[49][54] Vilnius Region
Belarusians 14 700 6.2% – –
Lithuanians 79 400 33.6% – –
Poles 47 200 20.0% – –
Russians 69 400 29.4% – –
Tatars 496 0.2% – –
Ukrainians 6 600 2.8% – –
Jews 16 400 7.2% – –
Other – 0.8% – –
Total 236 100 100% – –

Soviet census of January 1989

Poles accounted for 63.6% of the population in Vilnius rayon/county (currently Vilnius district municipality, excluding the city of Vilnius itself), and 82.4% of the population in Šalčininkai rayon/county (currently known as Šalčininkai district municipality).[55]

Template:Diagonal split header City of Vilnius[54] Vilnius Region
Belarusians – 5.3% – –
Lithuanians – 50.5% – –
Poles – 18.8% – –
Russians – 20.2% – –
Tatars – 0.2% – –
Ukrainians – 2.3% – –
Jews – 1.6% – –
Other – 1.1% – –
Total 582 500 100% – –

Lithuanian census of 2001

File:Polnische Minderheit in Litauen.svg
Poles in Lithuania (2001)

2001 Lithuanian census:[56]

Template:Diagonal split header Vilnius city municipality[49][54] Vilnius district municipality
Belarusians 22 555 4.1% 3 869 4.4%
Lithuanians 318 510 57.5% 19 855 22.4%
Poles 104 446 18.9% 54 322 61.3%
Russians 77 698 14.0% 7 430 8.4%
Ukrainians 7 159 1.3% 619 0.7%
Jews 2 785 0.5% 37 <0.01%
Other 2 528 0.5% 484 0.5%
Total 553 904 100% 88 600 100%

Lithuanian census of 2011

File:Poles in Lithuania Barry Kent.png
Poles in Lithuania (2011)
Template:Diagonal split header Vilnius city municipality[57] Vilnius district municipality[57]
Belarusians 18 924 3.5% 3 982 4.2%
Lithuanians 338 758 63.2% 30 967 32.5%
Poles 88 408 16.5% 49 648 52.1%
Russians 63 991 11.9% 7 638 8.0%
Ukrainians 5 338 1.0% 623 0.7%
Jews 2 026 0.4% 109 0.1%
Other 4 754 0.9% 754 0.8%
Not indicated 13 432 2.5% 1 627 1.6%
Total 535 631 100% 95 348 100%

20th century

The city's population increased to 205,300 in 1909.[18][58]

Population, 1530–1914Template:Sfn[59][60]
Year Population
1530 30,000
1654 Decrease 14,000
1766 Increase 60,000
1795 Decrease 17,700
1800 Increase 31,000
1811 Increase 56,300
1818 Decrease 33,600
1834 Increase 52,300
1861 Increase 60,500
1869 Increase 64,400
1880 Increase 89,600
1886 Increase 103,000
1897 Increase 154,500
1900 Increase 162,600
1911 Increase 238,600
1914 Decrease 214,600

During World War I, thousands of residents were forced to flee, were killed, or were taken to labor camps; the city's 1919 population fell to 128,500.[7][61] Vilnius recovered during the interwar period, with 209,442 residents in 1939,[62] but its population fell to 110,000 in 1944.[7]

The city's population increased as the capital of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic; according to the 1989 census, it had 576,747 residents.[7] Although Lithuania experienced much emigration after independence in 1990, Vilnius' population was almost unchanged (542,287 in 2001) and has increased every year since 2006; its 1 January 2020 population was 580,020.[7][63]


An old, color-coded map
Vilnius (in green) in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in a 1712 map


Early 19th-century painting of a cobbled city street
Near the Dominican Church of the Holy Spirit in Dominikonų Street, 19th century
Photo of a wide city street
Pilies Street in 1873


Tinted photo of a busy street scene
Vilnius in 1915–1916. The city was known for its ethnic tolerance until World War I.[5]

The city's Lithuanian population reached a record low in 1931 (0.8 percent); Poles numbered 65.9 percent after the 1922 annexation of Vilnius Region by Poland and the Lithuanian retreat from the region to the temporary capital of Kaunas.[64]

After the 1939 Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty, Lithuania regained one-third of Vilnius Region and tried to Lithuanize Vilnius by introducing Lithuanian laws.[65] Prime Minister Antanas Merkys said that this was "to make everybody think like Lithuanians. First of all, it was and still is necessary to comb out the foreign element from the Vilnius Region".[65] The Lithuanian government enacted a law in which those "who on 12 July 1920 (...) were regarded as Lithuanian nationals, and on 27 October 1939 were resident in the territory became Lithuanian nationals".[66][67] About 150,000 Poles were repatriated from the Lithuanian SSR from 1945 to 1956.[65] Nearly the entire Jewish population was exterminated during the Holocaust in Lithuania.[64]

After World War II, the number of ethnic Lithuanians in Vilnius rebounded; however, Lithuanization was replaced with Sovietization.[64][68] Following independence in 1990, Vilnius' ethnic-Lithuanian population increased to 63.2 percent in 2011 and 67.44 percent in 2021.[69][70][71]

Historic ethnic makeup

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Historic ethnic makeup of Vilnius
Year Lithuanians Poles Russians Jews Others Total
1897[72] 3,131 2% 47,795 31% 30,967 20% 61,847 40% 10,792 7% 154,532
1916Template:Sfn Increase 3,669 2.6% Increase 70,629 50.1% Decrease 2,080 1.5% Decrease 61,265 43.5% Decrease 3,217 2.3% Decrease 140,840
1917Template:Sfn Decrease 2,909 2.1% Increase 74,466 53.65% Increase 2,212 1.6% Decrease 57,516 41.44% Decrease 1,872 0.77% Decrease 138,787
1919Template:Sfn Decrease 2,900 2.3% Decrease 72,067 56.1% Increase 4,049 3.2% Decrease 46,506 36.2% Increase 2,954 2.3% Decrease 128,476
1923Template:Sfn Decrease 1,445 0.9% Increase 100,830 60.2% Increase 4,669 2.8% Increase 56,168 33.5% Increase 4,342 2.6% Increase 167,454
1931[73] Increase 1,579 0.8% Increase 128,628 65.9% Increase 7,372 3.8% Decrease 54,596 28% Decrease 1,159 0.6% Increase 195,071
1941Template:Sfn Increase 52,370 28.1% Decrease 94,511 50.7% Decrease 6.712 3.6% Decrease 30,179 16.2% Increase 2,541 1.4% Decrease 186,313
1942Template:Sfn Decrease 29,480 20.5% Increase 103,203 71.9% Decrease 6,012 2% — — Decrease 1,220 0.4% Decrease 143,498
1951Template:Sfn Increase 55,300 30.8% Decrease 37,700 21% Increase 59,700 33.3% Decrease 5,500 3.1% Increase 21,100 11.8% Increase 179,300
1959[68] Increase 79,363 33.6% Increase 47,226 20% Increase 69,416 29.4% Increase 16,354 6.9% Increase 23,719 10% Increase 236,078
1970Template:Sfn Increase 159,156 42.8% Increase 68,261 18.6% Increase 91,004 24.5% Increase 16,491 4.4% Increase 37,188 10% Increase 372,100
1979Template:Sfn Increase 225,137 47.3% Increase 85,562 18% Increase 105,618 22.2% Decrease 10,723 2.3% Increase 48,785 10.3% Increase 475,825
1989Template:Sfn Increase 291,527 50.5% Increase 108,239 18.8% Increase 116,618 20.2% Decrease 9,109 1.6% Increase 51,524 8.9% Increase 576,747
2001[74] Increase 318,510 57.5% Decrease 104,446 18.9% Decrease 77,698 14.1% Decrease 2,770 0.5% Decrease 50,480 9.1% Decrease 553,904
2011[69] Increase 337,000 63.2% Decrease 88,380 16.5% Decrease 64,275 12% Decrease 2,026 0.4% Decrease 45,976 8.6% Decrease 535,631
2021[75] Increase 373,511 67.1% Decrease 85,438 15.4% Decrease 53,886 9.7% — — Decrease 43,655 7.8% Increase 556,490

Jews of Vilnius

The Jews living in Vilnius had their own complex identity, and labels of Polish Jews, Lithuanian Jews or Russian Jews are all applicable only in part.[76] The majority of the Yiddish speaking population used the Litvish dialect.

A red-and-blue graph
Vilnius population pyramid in 2021

The situation today

The Vilnius urban region is the only area in East Lithuania that doesn't face a decrease in population density. Polish people constitute the majority of native rural inhabitants in the Vilnius region. However, the share of Poles across the region is dwindling mainly due to the natural decline of rural population and process of suburbanization – most of new residents in the outskirts of Vilnius are Lithuanians.[53]

Most Poles in the area today speak a dialect known as the simple speech (po prostu).[77] Colloquial Polish in Lithuania includes dialectic qualities and is influenced by other languages.[78] Educated Poles speak a language close to standard Polish.Script error: No such module "Unsubst".

See also

References

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  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  15. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  18. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  19. ↑ Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
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  21. ↑ Tomas Venclova, Four Centuries of Enlightenment. A Historic View of the University of Vilnius, 1579–1979 Template:Webarchive, Lituanus, Volume 27, No.1 – Summer 1981
  22. ↑ Rev. Stasys Yla, The Clash of Nationalities at the University of Vilnius Template:Webarchive, Lituanus, Volume 27, No.1 – Summer 1981
  23. ↑ Ronald Grigor Suny, Michael D. Kennedy, "Intellectuals and the Articulation of the Nation", University of Michigan Press, 2001, pg. 265 [1]
  24. ↑ The genealogical tree of Józef Klemens (Ziuk) Piłsudski
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  33. ↑ Script error: No such module "Footnotes".; In May 1915 the number was even bigger — 172,832 people were registered.
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  48. ↑ a b c Vitalija Stravinskiene. Polska ludność Litwy Wschodniej i Południowo-Wschodniej w polu widzenia sowieckich służb bezpieczeństwa w latch 1944–1953. Instytut Historii Litwy. "Biuletyn Historii Pogranicza". Vol 11. 2001. p. 62.
  49. ↑ a b c Timothy Snyder. The Reconstruction of Nations. Yale University Press. 2003. pp. 91–93, 95
  50. ↑ a b Script error: No such module "citation/CS1".
  51. ↑ Dovile Budryte, Taming nationalism?: political community building in the post-Soviet Baltic States, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005, Template:ISBN, Google Print, p.147
  52. ↑ Theodore R. Weeks. "Remembering and forgetting: creating Soviet Lithuanian capital Vilnius 1944–1949." In: Jorg Hackmann, Marko Lehti. Contested and Shared Places of Memory: History and politics in North Eastern Europe. Routledge. 2013. pp. 139–141.
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  54. ↑ a b c Saulius Stanaitis, Darius Cesnavicius. Dynamics of national composition of Vilnius population in the 2nd half of the 20th century. Bulletin of Geography, Socio-Economic Series. No. 13/2010. pp. 35–37.
  55. ↑ Piotr Eberhardt. Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis. M.E. Sharpe. 2003. p. 59.
  56. ↑ Population by some ethnicities by county and municipality. Data from Statistikos Departamentas, 2001 Population and Housing Census. Template:Webarchive
  57. ↑ a b Census 2011 Template:Webarchive, Statistics Lithuania, 2013
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  60. ↑ Juozas Jurginis; Vytautas Merkys; Adolfas Tautavičius (1968). Vilniaus miesto istorija [Vilnius city history] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius.
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  76. ↑ Ezra Mendelsohn, On Modern Jewish Politics, Oxford University Press, 1993, Template:ISBN, Google Print, p.8 and Mark Abley, Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages, Houghton Mifflin Books, 2003, Template:ISBN, Google Print, p.205
  77. ↑ Lietuvos rytai; straipsnių rinkinys The east of Lithuania; the collection of articles; V. Čekmonas, L. Grumadaitė "Kalbų paplitimas Rytų Lietuvoje" "The distribution of languages in eastern Lithuania"
  78. ↑ K. Geben, Język internautów wileńskich (The language of Vilnius Internauts), in Poradnik Jezykowy, 2008 Template:Webarchive

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Sources

Sources by language

English

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Lithuanian

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Polish

19th century
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20th century
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21st century
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Russian

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External links

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